Russian travelers of the 19th century. Forgotten Russian travelers of the 18th century Russian travelers of the second half of the 19th century table

Who: Semyon Dezhnev, Cossack chieftain, merchant, fur trader.

When: 1648

What I discovered: The first to cross the Bering Strait, which separates Eurasia from North America.

Thus, I found out that Eurasia and North America are two different continents, and that they do not merge.

Who: Thaddeus Bellingshausen, Russian admiral, navigator.

Travels

When: 1820.

What I discovered: Antarctica together with Mikhail Lazarev on the frigates "Vostok" and "Mirny".

He commanded Vostok. Before the expedition of Lazarev and Bellingshausen, nothing was known about the existence of this continent.

Also, the expedition of Bellingshausen and Lazarev finally dispelled the myth about the existence of the mythical "Southern continent", which was mistakenly put on all medieval maps of Europe.

Navigators, including the famous captain James Cook, searched the Indian Ocean for this “Southern Continent” for more than three hundred and fifty years without any success, and of course, they found nothing.

Who: Kamchatka Ivan, Cossack and sable hunter.

When: 1650s.

What I discovered: peninsula Kamchatka, named in his honor.

Who: Semyon Chelyuskin, polar explorer, officer of the Russian fleet

When: 1742

What I discovered: the northernmost cape of Eurasia, named after him by Cape Chelyuskin.

Who: Ermak Timofeevich, Cossack chieftain in the service of the Russian Tsar. Yermak's surname is unknown. Possibly Tokmak.

When: 1581-1585

What I discovered: conquered and explored Siberia for the Russian state. For this he entered into a successful armed struggle against the Tatar khans in Siberia.

Ivan Kruzenshtern, officer of the Russian fleet, admiral

When: 1803-1806.

What I discovered: He was the first Russian sailor to travel around the world with Yuri Lisyansky on the sloops "Nadezhda" and "Neva". He commanded the "Nadezhda"

Who: Yuri Lisyansky, officer of the Russian fleet, captain

When: 1803-1806.

What I discovered: He was the first Russian sailor to sail around the world with Ivan Kruzenshtern on the sloops "Nadezhda" and "Neva". The Neva was in command.

Who: Peter Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky

When: 1856-57

What I discovered: He was the first of the Europeans to explore the Tien Shan Mountains.

He also later studied a number of areas in Central Asia. For the study of the mountain system and services to science, he received from the authorities of the Russian Empire the honorary surname Tien Shansky, which he had the right to pass on by inheritance.

Who: Vitus Bering

When: 1727-29

What I discovered: The second (after Semyon Dezhnev) and the first of the scientific researchers reached North America, passing through the Bering Strait, thereby confirming its existence. Confirmed that North America and Eurasia are two different continents.

Who: Khabarov Erofey, Cossack, fur trader

When: 1649-53

What I discovered: mastered for the Russians part of Siberia and the Far East, studied the lands near the Amur River.

Who: Mikhail Lazarev, Russian naval officer.

When: 1820

What I discovered: Antarctica together with Thaddeus Bellingshausen on the frigates "Vostok" and "Mirny".

He commanded "Mirny". Before the expedition of Lazarev and Bellingshausen, nothing was known about the existence of this continent. Also, the Russian expedition finally dispelled the myth about the existence of the mythical "Southern continent", which was drawn on medieval European maps, and which sailors were unsuccessfully looking for for four hundred years in a row.

The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers have visited such places where a European has never gone before. In the second half XIX century... their efforts were focused on exploring the interior regions of Asia.

Expeditions deep into Asia began Peter Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), geographer, statistician, botanist.

He made a number of journeys to the mountains of Central Asia, to the Tien Shan. Having headed the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in the development of plans for new expeditions.

The activities of others were also associated with the Russian Geographical Society. russian travelers - P.

A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.

PA Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled across Northern Manchuria, Sayan and Vitim plateau.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888)he made his first expedition along the Ussuriysk Territory, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible regions of Central Asia.

He crossed Mongolia, North China several times, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, and visited Tibet. He died on the way, at the start of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, AP Chekhov wrote that such "ascetics are needed like the sun." “Composing the most poetic and cheerful element of society,” he added, “they excite, comfort and ennoble ...

Russian travelers of the 19th century (briefly)

If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types, given by life itself, are beyond any price.

Overseas russian travel scientists in the second half of the 19th century.

have become more focused. If before they were mainly limited to describing and mapping the coastline, now they studied the life, culture, customs of local peoples. This direction, which began in the XVIII century. put S.P. Krasheninnikov, was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888).

He made his first travels to the Canary Islands and North Africa. In the early 70s, he visited a number of islands in the Pacific Ocean, studied the life of local peoples. For 16 months he lived among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast).

The Russian scientist won the trust and love of local residents. Then he traveled to the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, again returned to the "Maclay Coast". The descriptions of the life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania compiled by the scientist were published in a significant part only after his death.

World geographical science in those years was largely based on the achievements of Russian researchers.

By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries is over... And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.

§The first Russian Marxist V.

G. Plekhanov
§The beginning of Lenin's revolutionary activity
§The beginning of the reign of Alexander I
§The beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812
§End of the Patriotic War of 1812

Chapter # 8

Lecture number 36

Russian culture in the 19th century

First half of the 19th century

Education and Science

At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education was finally formed in Russia. Held in 1803 year, the reform in the field of education led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial town, and a school in every county town. Parish schools were also created in rural areas, where children of different classes were accepted. The Ministry of Public Education was created to manage educational institutions.

AT 1811 was opened Alexandrovsky (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum,where representatives of the highest noble society studied (including A.S. Pushkin),

The government of Alexander I paid much attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University in Russia before, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Derpt (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilensky (1804), Petersburg (1819).

Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became estates-isolated. Parish one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the "lower classes". They taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic there for a year. The children of merchants, artisans, burghers were admitted to the district three-class schools. They taught Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. Children of noblemen, officials, merchants of the first guild studied in the seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of teaching the children of serfs in grammar schools and universities. Control was tightened over universities that were considered sources of "unreliability." In 1835, the universities were stripped of their internal autonomy status.

The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, is increasing. In 1832 the Imperial Military Academy was opened, in 1855 - the Artillery and Engineering Academy.

The growth of industrial production and the development of technology have caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational and technical educational institutions increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. A Commercial Academy, an Agricultural School, a Mining School, and a Technical School were opened in Moscow.

The development of domestic science has also contributed to the improvement of the education system.

Scientific discoveries

Biology
Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky	He refuted the statement about the immutability of plants and animals, he argued that the earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it over time under the influence of natural causes undergo fundamental changes.
Ustin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky	He put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are caused by natural causes and are subject to the general laws of development. Life, in his opinion, is a continuous physical and chemical process.
Karl Maksimovich Baer	The work "The General Law of the Development of Nature" became a serious step forward in substantiating the concept of the development of living organisms.
The medicine
Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov	Professor of the Medical and Surgical Academy, the founder of military field surgery. During the Crimean War, for the first time in the field, he used anesthesia during an operation, and used an immobile plaster cast to treat fractures.
Maths
Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky	Created non-Euclidean geometry
Physics
Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov	Developed a galvanic battery. It made it possible to obtain a stable electric arc - the prototype of the future light bulb.
Boris Semenovich Jacobi	He invented the electric motor, electroplating - a method of applying a thin layer of metal to the desired surface using electricity. Invented the direct-printing apparatus for the telegraph
Emil Christianovich Lenz	He established a rule for determining the direction of the driving force of induction (Lenz's law0, and a year later, on this basis, an electric motor was invented
Pavel Lvovich Schilling	Created the world's first practically usable electric telegraph - a device for transmitting written messages over wires
Chemistry
Konstantin Sigismundovich Kirchhoff	Developed a method for producing glucose.
Herman Ivanovich Hess	Discovered the basic law of thermochemistry, which expressed the principle of conservation of energy as applied to chemical processes
Pyotr Grigorievich Sobolevsky and Vasily Vasilievich Lyubarsky	Powder metallurgy began
Science in production
Pavel Petrovich Anosov	Developed four options for the technology of producing damask steel
Efim and Miron Cherepanov, serf mechanics	The first steam railway was built
Chemists N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov	Created stable chemical dyes for the booming textile industry
History
Nikolay Mikhailovich Karamzin	Wrote a 12-volume "History of the Russian State"
Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev	Wrote "History of Russia from Ancient Times" in 29 volumes

Russian discoverers and travelers

Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky	In 1803-1806, during the first Russian round-the-world expedition, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped. A lot of data was collected by the participants of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. As a result of the expedition, Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials served as the basis for the published Atlas of the South Seas.
Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev	In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was assigned to lead a new round-the-world expedition on boats (single-masted ships) "Vostok" and "Mirny". In 1820, the expedition approached the shores of the then unknown Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent". After staying in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russians Islands. For 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors made the most important geographical discoveries, brought valuable collections, observations of the waters of the world's oceans and the ice cover of a continent new to mankind
Alexander Andreevich Baranov	He made a huge contribution to the development of Russian America. As a merchant, he searched for minerals, founded Russian settlements and supplied them with everything they needed.It was he who managed to secure for Russia vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America
Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky	In 1848-1855. he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, open a number of new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur.
Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin	In the years 1852-1855. being the leader of the expedition discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelskoy, he laid the foundation for the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia.

Art culture

"Golden Age" of Russian Literature

In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its "golden age". She raised the most important social problems, one of the main among them was the problem of strengthening national identity... Writers and poets turned to the country's historical past, trying to find answers to modern questions in it.

An important feature of the development of literature and art of this time was the rapid change in artistic directions and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles.

The dominant direction in Russian and European art of the early 19th century remained classicism... His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century, he was more connected with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic wars, the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.

The most striking example of the combination of literary work and the activity of a historian was creativity Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin... In the story "Martha Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod, he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow") traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thus a united and strong Russian state. These thoughts were imbued with his scientific work "History of the Russian State".

The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, the moral traits of a person of previous eras.

One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism... Romanticism is a trend in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero opposing himself, the world of his soul to the world around him.

Russian romanticism was distinguished by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, the establishment of a strong, liberated personality

The creator of Russian romanticism is considered to be Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads "Lyudmila" and "Svetlana" became models of the style of new literature.

In addition to him, the representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.

At the beginning of his career, romantic works were created by the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov. Their works, in contrast to the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by life optimism, an active position in the struggle for ideals. These features were predominant in the romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they that marked the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. Outstanding examples of literature in this direction were the works of late Pushkin (rightfully considered the ancestor of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama Boris Godunov, the stories The Captain's Daughter, Dubrovsky, Belkin's Tale, the Bronze Horseman poem, and others. as well as Lermontov's novel A Hero of Our Time.

In the 20-50s. another new direction is becoming widespread - realism. His followers tried to portray the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the trends of the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and by the very content of the works requiring changes.

The founder of the "natural school" (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol. One of the brightest works of this artistic direction was his story "The Overcoat", which, along with his other works: "Dead Souls," "The Inspector General," and others, the beginning of the "Gogol period" of Russian literature of the 30-40s. “We all left Gogol's Overcoat,” FM later noted. Dostoevsky.

Alexander Nikolaevich Ostrovsky showed the reader the realistic world of the Russian merchants in his first drama "Our people - we will be numbered", who revealed the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchants who were rapidly increasing their importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained a wealth of life experience associated with the life and customs of the Russian merchants.

In the 40-50s. the central place in literature was occupied by the theme of the serf village, its customs and mores. A literary event was the publication of "Notes of a Hunter" by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, who described not only the nature of the Central Russian strip, but also the serfs, to whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.

The hopeless poverty and oppression of the serf were portrayed in Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich's stories "The Village" and "Anton-Goremyka". As one of his contemporaries wrote, "not a single educated person of that time ... could read without tears about Anton's misfortunes and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom."

The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of the modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the heavy written speech of the previous century.

Theater

In Russian theater, the change in artistic trends occurred as quickly as in literature.

At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism dominated on the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent antique and mythological plots, external splendor.

In 20-30 years. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experience of the heroes. The largest representative of romanticism in Russian theater was Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in the drama of F. Schiller “Treachery and Love). His play was distinguished by stormy emotionality, and his characters were distinguished by a selfless struggle for freedom and justice.

In the 40s. begins a new page in the history of Russian theater associated with the development of the realistic direction. In drama, it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting. Shchepkin was the first to suggest subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin in the Maly Theater became the largest social event in the life of Moscow.

Another remarkable actor of the school of stage realism was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. With great skill he conveyed the experiences and everyday life of the "little man" of his time.

An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the former Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet performances) and Maly (dramatic). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theater, which differed from the more democratic Moscow Maly in its official character.

Music

Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic 1812. If before the household opera prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic subjects of the historical past of Russia. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".

The entire first half of the 19th century was marked by the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motives sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamov, A.A. Alyabyeva, A.L. Gurilev.

The romantic trend in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. "The people create music," he said, and we, the artists, only arrange it. "

Glinka managed to establish in Russian music not only folk, but also realistic traditions. He became the founder of the main genres of Russian professional music. The most vivid idea of \u200b\u200bthe composer's work is provided by his opera A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin). In it, Glinka glorified a simple peasant-patriot and at the same time the courage, resilience and greatness of the character of the entire Russian people.

The development of the national theme in music was continued by another Russian composer - Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky. His main work - the opera "Mermaid" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.

Painting

During this period, there is a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological plots, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. There is a growing interest of artists in the personality of man, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people.

Karl Pavlovich Bryullov became the largest figure of classicism in Russian painting. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - "The Last Day of Pompeii" - for the first time as a hero he presented the people, conveying the dignity, heroism and greatness of a common man in a natural disaster. In this work of Bryullov, a striving for realism became apparent. It manifested itself in all his paintings: "Self-portrait", "Horsewoman", etc.

The outstanding representatives of romanticism in painting were the remarkable portrait painters Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreyevich Tropinin. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S., remarkable in their expressiveness. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (President of the Academy of Arts). In them, he showed a sublime beginning, an inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. A distinctive feature of Tropinin's work was the display of a person in his environment, doing what he loved. Such are his genre portraits of "The Lacemaker", "Guitarist", "Gold Embroidery" and others. Tropinin is also famous for the fact that he became the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.

Alexander Andreevich Ivanov became one of the greatest masters of Russian painting. The main work of his life was the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People", on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of \u200b\u200bthe picture is the belief in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the many depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of education. Words that can show people the way to a better future.

Pavel Andreevich Fedotov became the founder of critical realism in Russian painting. In his genre paintings, he managed to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: "The Fresh Cavalier" and "The Courtship of a Major", in which one can see the drama of situations, the author's critical position in relation to reality.

The birth of the genre of genre popular in the 19th century is associated with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings became a real discovery in Russian painting. They were dedicated to the daily work and life of the peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On arable land. Spring "," At the harvest. Summer ”,“ Zakharka ”, in the portrait gallery of peasants, he portrayed their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of their native nature. This direction of painting is usually called the "Venetian school".

In the genre of seascape worked I.K. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with an amazingly picturesque image of the sea element. The painting "The Ninth Wave" gained particular fame, which is a vivid example of the master's unsurpassed professionalism and testifies to the romantic nature of his work during this period.

The center of the artistic life of Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in 1832 in Moscow.

Architecture

In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas of artistic creation. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its peak at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, strict lines inherited from imperial Rome. An important element of the Empire style was also sculptures that complemented the architectural design of buildings. In the Empire style, palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, meetings of the nobility, public places, theaters and even temples were erected.

The beginning of the 19th century was a time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures, united into a single whole. It was then that the Palace, Admiralteiskaya and Senate squares were formed in St. Petersburg, and Teatralnaya in Moscow.

The largest representatives of the Russian Empire style were Andreian Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, and Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.

Karl Ivanovich Rossi also worked in the Empire style, creating the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Public Library, the Senate and the Synod.

In Moscow, in the Empire style, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were performed: the Red Square, reconstructed after the fire of 1812, Teatralnaya Square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gates, etc.

Architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigorievich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored public buildings in Moscow destroyed by the fire of 1812: Slobodsky Palace, Catherine Institute, Moscow University.

With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. the "Russian-Byzantine" style begins to spread. The architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton in this style created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory, Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) railway station, etc.

St. Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858, was the largest Orthodox church in St. Petersburg. designed by the architect Auguste Montferrand, under the personal control of Emperor Nicholas I.

Architect O. Monferrano. Saint Isaac's Cathedral

The interior decoration of St. Isaac's Cathedral

Sculpture

The development of sculpture was closely related to the development of architecture. Especially a lot of works organically inscribed in architectural ensembles were created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: a bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps at the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Peter Karlovich Klodt: "The Horse Tamer" on the Anichkov Bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I erected on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.

In 1804 Ivan Petrovich Martos creates a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.

Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments in Moscow. It is located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of national heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody the lofty ideals of civic valor and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing with his hand at Moscow, hands over an old sword to Prince Pozharsky and calls on him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on the shield, the wounded voivode rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of the people's consciousness at a difficult hour for the Fatherland.

The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "Golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: a rapid change in artistic styles and trends, mutual enrichment and close relationship of literature and other areas of art, strengthening of the public sound of the works created, organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, led to an increase in its influence on the life of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.

Second half of the 19th century

Education

The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of the awareness of society and the state of the need for broad enlightenment of the people. The reform in the field of education, carried out in 1864, expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:

1) zemstvo schools created by zemstvos

2) church schools

3) public schools of the Ministry of Public Education

Reform secondary schools were divided into two types:

-classical gymnasiums - in them, the main emphasis was on the study of subjects of the humanitarian cycle, graduates of gymnasiums could enter universities without exams;

Real schools differed from gymnasiums in their great attention to natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry, real schools prepared for admission to technical higher educational institutions.

Zemstvos began to play a huge role in spreading education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parochial schools, but the state did not have enough money for their maintenance. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most widespread type of primary school, covering all provincial and district cities, as well as many rural areas. The main type of secondary school was the gymnasium. In 1861, there were 85 male gymnasiums in Russia, after a quarter of a century the number of gymnasiums increased 3 times. By the beginning of the 90s. about 300 female gymnasiums were opened.

There were successes in higher education as well. New universities were opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into effect, expanding the self-government rights of universities.

There were special higher educational institutions - the Medical and Surgical Academy, the Technological, Mining, Communications, the Electrotechnical University, the Petrovsk Agricultural Academy. The formation of higher education for women took place. By the end of the 19th century, there were over 60 state higher educational institutions in Russia.

Overall, however, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census, the average literacy rate of the country's population was 21.1%. A little more than 1% of the population had a higher education, 4% had secondary education.

Scientific discoveries

Mathematics and physics
Pafnutiy Lvovich Chebyshev - mathematician and physicist	Constructed a plantigrade machine. Simulating the movement of an animal while walking, as well as an automatic calculating machine - an arithmometer.
Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov - physicist	By measuring the ratio of electromagnetic electrostatic units, he obtained a value close to the speed of light, this discovery contributed to the approval of the electromagnetic theory of light
Alexander Stepanovich Popov - physicist	He made a receiver-transmitter, after a few years he achieved a 150-kilometer transmission and reception range. For its discovery, he was awarded the Great Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900.
Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov - physicist	He created an arc light bulb, which soon illuminated the streets and houses of many cities around the world
Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky	Built the world's first airplane
Self-taught mechanic Fedor Abramovich Blinov	Invented the tracked tractor
Chemistry, biology
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - chemist	Discovered the periodic law of chemical elements,
Rector of Kazan University Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov-chemist	Laid the foundations of organic chemistry
Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev - soil scientist	Dokuchaev's published works on Russian soils were awarded a gold medal, in his book he outlined a plan to combat the drought that hit the black earth belt of Russia by planting forest shelter belts
Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov - biologist	He created the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, thereby realizing a revolution in biological science. He was the first to scientifically proved the unity and mutual conditioning of mental and bodily phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing more than the result of the work of the brain.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - biologist	He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, which laid the foundation for modern concepts of the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and latest form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. If the unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the body, inherent in all representatives of a given species, then the conditioned reflex is the reacquisition of the organism, the result of its accumulation of individual life experience.
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya - biologists	They organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods of combating rabies, and paid great attention to the fight against pests of agricultural plants.
Geography
Academician, Admiral Fyodor Petrovich Litke - geographer	Examined Kamchatka, Chukotka and a number of islands in the North Pacific
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky - geographer	He carried out major geological and zoological surveys in Central Asia, discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes unknown to Europeans, for the first time descriptions of some animals were given: a wild horse, a wild camel, a Tibetan bear. In the herbarium he collected, which numbered up to 16 thousand copies, 218 new plant species were discovered
Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay - geographer	He devoted his life to studying the peoples of Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. For two and a half years he lived on the northeastern coast of New Guinea. Has won the love and trust of its inhabitants. He visited the southwestern coast of this island, the southeastern coast, made two difficult trips to the interior regions of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station.
Humanitarian sciences
Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, and then Rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev	Created a 29 - volume "History of Russia from Ancient Times". His "Public Readings on Peter the Great", timed to coincide with the 200th anniversary of the birth of the great reformer of Russia, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. He was also a supporter of the comparative historical method of research, pointing out the general features of the development of Russia and Western Europe.
Soloviev's student Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky	He brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation "Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus" at Moscow University. He was the author of the "Course in Russian History", which he taught at Moscow University

Domestic science of the second half of the 19th century reached the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom, they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.

Literature

The main artistic direction of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life based on its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by a spirit of accusation, a keen interest in the life of an ordinary person, a desire to find ways and means of combating the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time terrible in the works of the satirist: "Provincial Essays", "The History of a City", "Lord Golovlev", "Pompadours and Pompadours". The artistic device used by the writer is grotesque. In his works, he takes all existing vices and weaknesses to the extreme. The writer knows no mercy either to officials, or to representatives of the high society, to merchants, or to the emerging bourgeoisie.

Moscow Automobile and Highway State Technical University

By discipline: Culturology

Russian travelers of the 19th century

Performed by Anna Evstifeeva

student of group 1 bmo2

Checked by Shorkova S.A.

Moscow 2013

Introduction

Chapter 1. Travelers of the first half of the 19th century

1 I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky

2 F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev.

3 A.A. Baranov

Chapter 2. Travelers of the second half of the 19th century

1 G.I. Nevelskoy and E.V. Putyatin

2 N.M. Przhevalsky

3 N.N. Miklukho Maclay

Conclusion

Introduction

The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian researchers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched the perceptions of Russians about the world around them, promoted the development of new territories that became part of the empire. For the first time, Russia has fulfilled an old dream: its ships entered the World Ocean.

Chapter 1. Travelers of the first half of the 19th century

.1 I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky

In 1803, at the direction of Alexander I, an expedition was undertaken on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. This was the first Russian round-the-world expedition, which lasted for 3 years. It was headed by Ivan Fyodorovich Kruzenshtern, the largest navigator and scientist-geographer of the 19th century.

During the voyage, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island was mapped for the first time. The participants of the trip left many interesting observations not only about the Far East, but also about other regions through which they sailed. The commander of the Neva, Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky, discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. A lot of data was collected by the participants of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans.

The results of the observations were presented in the report of the Academy of Sciences. They turned out to be so significant that I.F. Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials formed the basis for the published in the early 1920s. Atlas of the South Seas. In 1845, Admiral Kruzenshtern became one of the founding members of the Russian Geographical Society. He brought up a whole galaxy of Russian navigators and explorers.

1.2 F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev.

One of the students and followers of Kruzenshtern was Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen. He was a member of the first Russian round-the-world expedition.

In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was assigned to lead a new round-the-world expedition on sloops (single-masted ships) "Vostok" (which he commanded) and "Mirny" (commander Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev). The expedition plan was drawn up by Kruzenshtern. Its main goal was designated "the acquisition of the fullest knowledge about our globe" and "the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole."

january 1820, the expedition approached the shores of the then unknown Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent". After staying in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russians.

For 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors covered about 50 thousand km. The most important geographical discoveries were made, valuable collections were brought, data from observations of the waters of the World Ocean and ice coverings of a continent new to humanity.

1.3 A.A. Baranov

Alexander Andreevich Baranov can hardly be attributed to discoverers or travelers in the strict sense of these words. But he was a man who made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian America by our compatriots. As a Kargopol merchant, he traded in Eastern Siberia, and from 1790 in Northwest America.

In search of new hunting areas, Baranov studied in detail the Kodiak Island and other territories, searched for minerals, founded new Russian settlements and supplied them with everything they needed, established exchange with local residents. It was he who managed for the first time to truly secure for Russia vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America.

Baranov's activities were extremely difficult and dangerous. The constant raids of the Indians cost the Russian settlers not only considerable funds, but also their lives. In 1802 alone, when trying to create a settlement on the island of Sitka, more than 200 settlers were killed.

Baranov's efforts were so successful that in 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of the Russian colonies in America. He held this high and dangerous post almost until his death.

In 1804, Baranov founded the Novoarkhangelsk fortress on the Sitka island, and then the Ross fort. In 1815 he undertook an expedition to the Hawaiian Islands with the aim of their annexation to Russia. However, it did not bring good luck. Already an elderly and sick person, Alexander Andreevich asked for resignation three times. However, they were in no hurry to release such a person from service.

russian geographic round-the-world expedition

Chapter 2. Travelers of the second half of the 19th century

The largest researcher of the Russian Far East in the middle of the 19th century. became Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky.

In two expeditions (1848-1849 and 1850-1855), he managed, bypassing Sakhalin from the north, to discover a number of new, previously unknown territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. Here in 1850 he founded the Nikolaev post (Nikolaevsk-on-Amur). Nevelskoy's travels were of great importance: for the first time it was proved that Sakhalin was not at all connected to the mainland, but was an island and the Tatar Strait was precisely a strait, not a bay, as it was believed.

Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin in 1822-1825 traveled around the world and left a description of what he saw to the descendants. In the years 1852-1855. during the expedition led by him on the frigate "Pallada" the islands of Rimsky-Korsakov were discovered. Putyatin became the first Russian who managed to visit Japan, closed from Europeans, and even sign an agreement there (1855).

The result of the expeditions of Nevelskoy and Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia.

The most important of these institutions was the Russian Geographical Society, opened in 1845. It has become the center of geographical knowledge in Russia.

2.2 N.M. Przhevalsky

Przewalski dreamed of wanderings from an early age and prepared for them stubbornly. But the Crimean War broke out - he went to the army as a private. And then years of study at the Academy of the General Staff. However, a military career did not appeal to him. Staying at the Academy was marked for Przhevalsky only by compiling Military Statistical Review of the Amur Territory .

However, this work allowed him to become a member of the Geographical Society.

At the beginning of 1867, Przhevalsky presented to the Society a plan for a large and risky expedition to Central Asia. However, the insolence of the young officer seemed excessive, and the matter was limited to his business trip to the Ussuri region with permission conduct any scientific research ... But Przewalski met this decision with delight.

On this first trip, Przhevalsky compiled the most complete description of the Ussuri region and gained valuable expeditionary experience. Now they believed in him: there were no obstacles to travel to Mongolia and the Tangut country - Northern Tibet, as he dreamed of.

For four years of the expedition (1870-1873), significant amendments were made to the geographical map.

In 1876, he again headed for Tibet. The first of the Europeans, Przhevalsky reaches the mysterious Lake Lobnor, discovers the previously unknown Altindag ridge and defines the exact border of the Tibetan Plateau, establishing that it begins 300 km further north than previously thought. But this time he failed to penetrate deep into this almost unknown country to Europeans.

And yet, three years later, the Russian explorer reached the cherished highlands. The absolute lack of exploration of this area attracted Przhevalsky, who sent here in the early 1880s. your expedition. It was the most fruitful of his journey, crowned with many discoveries. True, the source of the Yellow River Przhevalsky was never found (it was found only quite recently), but the Russian expedition thoroughly explored the watershed between the Yellow River - the Yellow River and the Blue River, the largest in China and Eurasia - the Yangtze. Previously unknown ridges were mapped. Przhevalsky gave them names: Columbus ridge, Moskovsky ridge, Russian ridge. He called one of the peaks of the latter the Kremlin. Subsequently, a ridge appeared in this mountain system, perpetuating the name of Przhevalsky himself.

During all his expeditions, Przhevalsky, being a professional geographer, made discoveries that could bring glory to any zoologist or botanist. He described a wild horse (Przewalski's horse), a wild camel and a Tibetan bear, several new species of birds, fish and reptiles, hundreds of plant species.

And again he was getting ready to go. Tibet again beckoned him to her. This time Przewalski was determined to visit Lhasa.

But all plans collapsed. He died in his tent as soon as he started the journey. Before he died, he asked his companions to bury him certainly on the shore of Issyk-Kul, in a marching expeditionary uniform ... .

november 1888 Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky died. His last request was fulfilled.

2.3 N.N. Miklukho Maclay

Every culture, every tribe or people, every human person has the right to independence. When interacting, communicating, they should proceed from mutual respect, not striving to impose their own rules, their way of life by force and not imposing their thoughts.

These principles were close and understandable to Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay, who was brought up in an intelligent Russian family during the flourishing of Russian culture, primarily literature, permeated with the ideas of freedom, humanism, kindness and the search for truth. After studying biology and medicine in Germany, having made several scientific expeditions (he was an assistant to the famous biologist and ecologist E. Haeckel), he returned to Russia and then decided to go to New Guinea. K.M. Baer recommended that he observe people "without prejudice regarding the number and distribution of human tribes and races."

Until the middle of the XIX century. New Guinea remained aloof from the economic interests of the industrialized European powers. Perhaps it was influenced by the fact that no deposits of precious metals were found on it. It is also possible that the reason for this is rumors about the local cannibalistic savages. In addition, lush tropical vegetation impeded the development of these territories. A more or less thorough study of New Guinea began in 1871-1872: Italian scientists Luigi Albertis and Odoardo Beccari explored the northwestern part of the island.

Miklouho-Maclay had to hurry to find at least some of the Papuan tribes in their natural state. Therefore, he chose the practically unexplored southeastern coast of New Guinea, landed there in September 1871 and lived among the "savages" for more than a year, communicating with them, winning their respect and trust.

First stay on the Maclay bank.

september 1871 "Vityaz" anchored about 140 m from the coast. The Papuans soon appeared; Miklouho-Maclay, giving up his protection, landed on the shore with Ohlson and Boy and visited the village, the entire population of which fled into the jungle. The most courageous turned out to be a Papuan named Tui (in the pronunciation recorded by D.D. Tumarkin in 1977 - Toya). It is Tui who will become Miklouho-Maclay's main intermediary with the inhabitants of the coastal villages.

Nazimov warned that he could stand no more than a week, so Miklouho-Maclay, with the help of Tui, searched for Cape Garagashi, where a hut for a scientist was built (size 7 × 14 feet), and a cook was set up in a hut belonging to Tui. At the insistence of the commander of the "Vityaz", site 70 × 70 m was mined; the information whether Miklouho-Maclay used mines contradicts each other and is unverifiable. Of the products, Nikolai Nikolaevich had two poods of rice, Chilean beans, dried meat and a can of edible fat. Nazimov forced Miklouho-Maclay to take the team's daily allowance - that is, a daily supply of food for 300 people, but Nikolai Nikolaevich refused to take the supply free of charge. On September 27 "Vityaz" left the bay.

The first month in New Guinea was rather intense. Miklouho-Maclay came to the conclusion that his visits overly disturbed the islanders and limited himself only to contacts with the natives who visited him at Cape Garagasi. Since he did not know the language and customs, at first he limited himself to meteorological and zoobotanical research. Already on October 11, he was struck down by the first attack of fever, and repeated attacks continued during the entire stay of the scientist in Astrolabe Bay. The servants were constantly sick, especially it was bad for Boy, in whom Miklouho-Maclay diagnosed "a tumor of the lymphatic glands in the groin." The operation did not help; on December 13, the boy died. Miklouho-Maclay at the same time recalled his promise to Professor Gegenbaur to obtain a preparation for the larynx of a black man with tongue and all the muscles, which he prepared, despite the danger of the situation.

By January 1872, Miklouho-Maclay's authority among the local population had grown, and on January 11 he first received an invitation to the village of Bongu. There was an exchange of gifts, but the wives and children of the New Guineans were still hiding from the scientist. In February 1872, Nikolai Nikolaevich managed to heal Tui from a serious injury (a tree fell on him, the wound on his head festered), after which the scientist was received in the village, Tui introduced him to his wife and children; the opinion of the European as an evil spirit was greatly shaken. The ethnographer's symbolic inclusion in the local society took place on March 2 at a night ceremony attended by men from three related villages - Gumbu, Gorendu and Bongu. Miklouho-Maclay himself left an artistic description of the ceremony in his diary. After that, the scientist could safely make long excursions along the coast and even in the mountains. The greatest difficulty was created by the language barrier: by the end of his first stay in New Guinea, the scientist spoke about 350 words of the local Bongu language, and there were at least 15 languages \u200b\u200bin the vicinity.

The explored territories, the shores of the Astrolabe Bay and part of the coast to the east from it to Cape Huon, Miklouho-Maclay called by his name - "Miklouho-Maclay Coast", defining its geographical boundaries as follows: from Cape Croasil in the west to Cape King William in the east, from the seashore in the northeast to the highest ridge of the Mana Boro Boro mountains in the southwest.

Conclusion

World geographical science in those years was largely based on the achievements of Russian researchers. By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.

Bibliography

1.Danilov A.A. History of Russia, XIX century. Grade 8: textbook. for general education. institutions / A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulin. - 10th ed. - M .: Education, 2009 .-- 287 p., Fol. ill., cards.

2.Zezina M.R. L.V. Koshman Shulgin V.S. History of Russian culture. - M., 1990

I. Kruzenshtern and Yu. Lisyansky In 1803 an expedition was undertaken to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. It was the FIRST RUSSIAN EXPEDITION. It was headed by I. Kruzenshtern. For the first time, more than a thousand km of the coast of about. Sakhalin. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago. We have collected a lot of data on the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. These materials served as the basis for the Atlas of the South Seas. In 1803, an expedition was undertaken to explore the North Pacific. It was the FIRST RUSSIAN EXPEDITION. It was headed by I. Kruzenshtern. For the first time, more than a thousand km of the coast of about. Sakhalin. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago. We have collected a lot of data on the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. These materials served as the basis for the Atlas of the South Seas.

F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev F. Bellingshausen headed a new round-the-world expedition. The plan was drawn up by I. Kruzenshtern. In F. Bellingshausen he headed a new round-the-world expedition. The plan was drawn up by I. Kruzenshtern. The purpose was designated "the acquisition of the fullest knowledge about our globe" and "the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole" On January 16, 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, then, after anchorage in Australia, the ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the islands of the Russians The goal was "the acquisition of the fullest knowledge about our globe" and "the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole" On January 16, 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, then, after anchorage in Australia, the ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands , called the islands of the Russians

A. Baranov and the development of Russian America In search of new hunting areas A. Baranov studied the Kodiak Island in detail. It was he who managed for the first time to truly secure for Russia vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America. In 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of Alaska. In 1815 he undertook an expedition to the Hawaiian Islands with the aim of their annexation to Russia. In search of new hunting areas A. Baranov studied in detail Kodiak Island. It was he who managed for the first time to truly secure for Russia vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America. In 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of Alaska. In 1815 he undertook an expedition to the Hawaiian Islands with the aim of their annexation to Russia.

G. Nevelskoy and E. Putyatin G. Nevelskoy is the largest researcher of the Far East. In 2 expeditions (s) he succeeded in discovering new territories and entering the lower reaches of the Amur. G. Nevelskoy is the largest researcher of the Far East. In 2 expeditions (s) he succeeded in discovering new territories and entering the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin - discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. And he was the first Russian who visited Japan and signed an agreement there. E. Putyatin - discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. And he was the first Russian who visited Japan and signed an agreement there. The result of the expedition of G. Nevelsky and E. Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia. In 1845 the opening of the Russian Geographical Society. The result of the expedition of G. Nevelsky and E. Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia. In 1845, the opening of the Russian Geographical Society.