About 4000 years ago, tribes first appeared in the Mediterranean, namely its eastern part, which in Ancient Greece were given a special name - the Phoenicians. They went down in history primarily as the most famous navigators of the past.

It is known that the name of the country - Phenicia - literally sounds like a beautiful adjective - "Purple". And this analogy arose for a reason: the tribes obtained a bright dye for fabrics - purple - which was fixed as the color of the kings. But there is also a second meaning - "Fenechu", which means shipbuilders. It is also justified: the Phoenicians knew how to create ships so strong that they were not afraid of even the strongest sea storms and storms. Swimming was provided by slave rowers arranged in two rows. Having laid the foundations of shipbuilding, these brave people were considered the inventors of the first galleys - multi-tiered rowboats.

Endangered and Carthage

The Phoenician colonies occupied almost the entire coast of the Mediterranean Sea; they also included part of the Atlantic coast and North Africa. Many trading cities were founded there, in particular, Carthage, which had an advantageous geographical position and became the largest trade center with other countries, as well as the protection of the Phoenician colonies during the aggravated struggle with the Greeks and Tartessites.

Travels of famous sailors

The tribes known as talented traders, smart creditors and resourceful city builders also became famous as the best seafarers, who were known not only to Ancient Phenicia, but the whole world. They sailed in the Mediterranean and Atlantic, off the northern lands of Europe and the western African coasts, were the first to travel around the entire African continent, which lasted 2.5 years. This truly grandiose undertaking took place on behalf of the Egyptian king in the 7th century BC, a millennium before Vasco da Gama, proved that the sea surrounds Africa on all sides, excluding the junction with Asia.

There was also a report about the sun, which was on the right, and not on the left, because the travelers were in the other hemisphere of the Earth, which almost for the first time gave reason to assume about the unique shape of the planet - a ball, although at that time it was difficult to believe in it. There were also rare and inaccessible at that time expeditions to the south through the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean, this is even mentioned in the Bible. Moreover, these sailors were the first to see the shores of modern Great Britain and brought tin and Baltic amber there.

Around 500 BC NS. the Phoenician fleet sailed west through the Strait of Gibraltar and, establishing several small colonies on the Moroccan coast, sailed a little further south, reaching the Gulf of Guinea. The voyages of the Phoenician sailors are weighty expanded ancient geographical knowledge, despite the fact that many discoveries were kept secret by the Phoenicians - and history confirms this: until the 15th century, almost no one risked sailing along the western part of the African continent.

Other achievements of the Phoenicians: some interesting facts

It's safe to say that so many discoveries in antiquity were not made by any other people. And, even despite the fact that by no means in all cases it is the Phoenicians who are the authors of inventions, it was they who introduced them into life, thereby changing the course of civilization:

• created the alphabet, who began a triumphant journey around the world, supplanting almost all other forms of writing; it is interesting that all the letters of the alphabet, the number of which numbered more than two dozen, were consonants;
• the first in the world have thought of keeping the fish from spoiling with the help of salt, supplying products to the farthest countries; by the way, it was salt, which at that time was valued without exaggeration as worth its weight in gold, that the Phoenicians owe their outstanding wealth;
• began to extract paint from mollusks, which became a symbol of royal luxury, and this achievement happened by chance: a dog accidentally gnawed the shell;
• again the first in the world began to produce glass in furnaces from ordinary sand and soda; masks were made from the resulting glass, which covered the faces of the then deceased;
• they brought grapes and olives to North Africa, which then came to Spain, where they are still grown, they bought papyrus from the Egyptians and invented war machines.

Thus, the legacy of this civilization had a tremendous impact on the further development of mankind.

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Phoenician sailors and their travels

Culture of Ancient Phenicia

The culture and science of the ancient Phoenicians was also developed at a very high level: they had their own alphabet, which was eventually adopted by the Greeks. The peak of the heyday of the Phoenician civilization dates back to about 1,000 BC. AD

Ancient Phenicia did not have good fertile lands, constant rains due to the Mediterranean climate also prevented the Phoenicians from engaging in agriculture. The only way out for the inhabitants of the country was to engage in navigation, which significantly expanded trade relations with other peoples, and the abundance of forests allowed them to build ships on their own.

Navigation and trade relations

The Phoenicians built very durable ships that were not afraid of storms or storms. It was the Phoenicians who were the first to model and build ships with a keel, equipped with skin on the sides of the vessel - this significantly increased their speed.

Also, their ships were equipped with special compartments for the carriage of cargo, which were located above the deck. Thanks to the strength of their ships, the Phoenicians had the opportunity to enter the Atlantic Ocean, which at that time was not available to many Mediterranean sailors.

The naval strategy of the Phoenicians was striking in its thoughtfulness: they built special bays along the coast, so that in the event of a storm the ships could remain safe. With the help of navigation, the ancient Phoenicians were able to establish colonies in places where their ships could reach.

One of the most famous cities colonized by Phoenician seafarers was Carthage, which eventually became the center to which all Phoenician colonial cities were subordinate. Naturally, the title of the best navigators at that time was synonymous with the title of the best merchants.

What did the Phoenicians trade?

The Phoenicians sold in other countries what their country was rich in: first of all, red fabrics (the Phoenicians learned to extract red dye from mollusks thrown ashore by a storm), transparent glass produced by Phoenician artisans, Lebanese cedar wood, grape wine and olive butter.

Phoenician seafarers also did not return home empty-handed: in Egypt they bought grain and papyrus sheets, in Spain - silver and copper.

Also, the main commodity of the Phoenicians was slaves, whom they bought in other countries and sold houses in order for them to build new ships. Also, slaves, shackled, were used by Phoenician sailors for rowing.

Sometimes the navigators of Phenicia did not hesitate to pillage: as soon as an opportunity presented itself, they seized other people's ships and plundered small port cities.

Driven from the sea by the Greeks

However, as a result of internal strife and a significant shortage of material for the construction of new ships, the Phoenicians were ousted from the commercial and maritime business by the Greeks, who also learned how to build durable and more advanced ships.

But despite this, the Phoenicians managed to make a real revolution in the shipbuilding business of that time. They laid the main foundations of shipbuilding, which were used until the 19th century, when sailing ships began to supplant the first steamships.

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Phenicia is a narrow strip of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, bounded in the east by the Lebanese ridge.

O Phoenicians first told by Homer. From the end of the 2nd early 1st millennium BC, the Phoenicians were engaged in maritime trade, at the same time they founded settlements throughout the Mediterranean (the most significant of them is Carthage). Like all sailors of antiquity, they never voluntarily moved away from the coast beyond the limits of its visibility, never swam in winter and at night.

When the Phoenician society became slave-owning, it became more and more in need of an influx of new slaves, and this further strengthened the desire to sail to overseas countries.

So, no later than 15 centuries BC the Phoenicians began to visit Crete. Moving from there to the west, they laid the foundation for the discovery of the Central Mediterranean basin. From the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Phoenicians moved to the southern shores of the Balkan Peninsula, crossed the Strait of Otranto and rounded Apulia and Calambria. Simultaneously with the Cretans, or somewhat later, they discovered the island of Sicily, and then discovered and colonized Malta in the 8th century BC. Having crossed the Strait of Tunis, they moved westward and traced nearly 2,000 km of the coastline of Northwest Africa, opening the mountainous Atlas country to the Strait of Gibraltar. Coming out to the strait, the Phoenicians for the first time got a correct idea of ​​the length of the Great Sea of ​​Sunset (3700 km).

Simultaneously with the penetration to the west, the Phoenicians began to explore the African coast and in an eastern direction. They discovered the bays of Hammamet, Small Sirte with the islands of Kerkenna and Djerba and Big Sirte.

Phoenician sailors

They opened the entire western coast of the Iberian Peninsula, entered the mouths of such rivers as the Guadiana, Tagus, Douro, and Minho. There is a possibility that the Phoenicians got acquainted with the shores of the Bay of Biscay up to the Brittany Peninsula.

The Phoenicians built ships for expeditions, which were organized by their neighbors, who owned the shores of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and entered their service.

V 600 BC Egyptian pharaoh Necho ordered a group of Phoenician merchants to go to sailing around Africa... The historian Herodotus, who visited Egypt, spoke about this voyage, 150 years later, with such details that he himself considered incredible. But it is precisely these details that confirm the reliability of the event. So, to Herodotus, who did not have a modern idea of ​​the globe and the solar system, that part of the story seemed implausible, which said that when the Phoenicians circled Africa from the south, moving at the same time from east to west, they had the sun on the right side, then is in the north. For us, it is clear that this very circumstance confirms that the Phoenicians really crossed the equator, sailed through the waters of the Southern Hemisphere and circled Africa from the south. They circled Africa for three years, which is quite plausible, considering the capabilities of the navigational equipment of that time, as well as the fact that they stopped for 2-3 months every year to sow and collect bread.

Carthage was founded by the Phoenicians around 850 BC, the greatest trading center of the time. In 500 BC, Carthage, having emerged as a Phoenician colony, began to look for a colony itself. To this end, the Carthaginians organized a large naval expedition led by the Carthaginian admiral Hannon... He led a flotilla of 60 ships, on which there were 30 thousand colonists.

Along the way, Gannon founded cities and in each of them left a part of people and ships.

This journey of the Carthaginians was reflected in the "Periplus" (description of the voyage) of the naval commander Gannon, from which we learned that, having passed through the Strait of Gibraltar, they followed the Atlantic coast of Africa for two days, founding cities along the route. We skirted Cape Zeleny and soon entered the mouth of the Gambia River. A few days later, the travelers reached what they called the Western Horn (probably Byssagos Bay), then the South Horn (now Sherborough Bay in Sierra Leone) and finally landed on the coast of what is now Liberia.

Thus, Gannon reached Equatorial Africa. As far as is known, he was the first Mediterranean inhabitant to visit and describe West Africa.

The results of his outstanding voyage were used only to a minimal extent: Carthaginian traders followed him as far as Kerna and organized the “Golden Road” (gold trade) with the deep regions of West Africa.

The Carthaginians are also credited with the discovery of the Azores, but in the literary monuments there is no indication of their visit to these islands. But in 1749, the Swede Johan Podolin reported on the discovery on the island of Carpet of a treasure of ancient coins, among which were Carthaginian ones.

Simultaneously with Hannon, another navigator of Carthage - Gimilkon- made a great voyage along the western coasts of Europe and, apparently, reached the southwestern tip of England (the Scylli Islands).

Thus, Phoenicians and Carthaginians were the first peoples of antiquity to swim in the open sea and ocean without a compass. Undoubtedly, their voyages should have enriched the Phoenicians with a lot of information about the physical properties of the ocean, but nothing from their area of ​​knowledge has come down to us. Apparently, they were of the opinion that the Atlantic and Indian oceans form one continuous water surface.

Phoenician warships and merchant ships. Assyrian relief from the palace of Sinacherib in Nineveh. VIII-VII centuries. BC.

Relying on their colonies, the Phoenician and Carthaginian navigators gradually began to go far beyond the Mediterranean Sea.

During the heyday of the Phoenician and Carthaginian navigation, the sea becomes a means of communication between the three continents of the Mediterranean and distant countries outside Gibraltar.

The Phoenicians were the first of the Mediterranean peoples to reach the shores of present-day England and receive tin here.

By exchange, they received amber, which was then so valued at that time, delivered here by dry way from the Baltic States to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean.

Carthaginian sailors, going out into the ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar, which they call the "Pillars of Melkart" (the supreme god of Tyrus), also sailed along the western coast of Africa many times.

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The description of one of such sea expeditions of the brave Carthaginian navigators has come down to us in Greek translation.

This is the so-called journey of Hannon, dating from about the 6th or 5th century. BC

Phenicia - the land of sailors

Although the description of the expedition of the Carthaginian sailor looks like an entertaining adventure novel, nevertheless, all his information, according to authoritative researchers, corresponds to reality.

It is possible to trace the path of the expedition step by step, comparing the data on this trip with what we know about the geography of the west coast of Africa.

Along with expeditions to the northwest and southwest, the Phoenician cities sent sea expeditions to the south, with the help of the Egyptians, and sometimes Israel and Judea.

Here the Phoenician ships probably reached the Indian Ocean through the Red Sea.

The Bible tells about one of such sea voyages when it tells about an expedition to the gold-rich country of Ophir, organized by Hiram, king of Tire, and Solomon, king of Israel.

But the most ambitious enterprise should be considered the sea expedition of the Phoenicians, which they made on behalf of the Egyptian king Necho at the end of the 7th century. BC NS.

Within three years, they circled Africa and returned through the "Pillars of Melqart", accomplishing this outstanding feat more than two thousand years before Vasco da Gama.

Message-report "Voyage of the Phoenician sailors" or "Voyage of the Phoenicians" grade 5

Phoenicians are the best navigators of the Ancient World, tireless traders and explorers. Most of all geographical discoveries made in the Ancient World belonged to the Phoenicians. Phoenician seafarers founded many colonial cities in Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa as far as the Strait of Gibraltar. Although Phenicia itself was located in Asia Minor, on the territory of modern Lebanon. The Phoenicians furrowed the entire Mediterranean Sea up and down.

I introduced myself as a Phoenician navigator. I live a thousand years before our era, that is, three thousand years ago. We have been sailing for nine months already, we have already reached the coast of Spain. I will see my hometown of Tire, the capital of our Phenicia, only in a year.

The ship on which I am a sailor is large - no other ship like this can be found in any country. It is equipped with a bow ram deck, built of the strongest Lebanese cedar. The tail of the ship is carved out of wood in the shape of a scorpion tail! We are sailing.

If we rowed, we would not have reached Spain in a year.

There are 29 of us in the team. On the ship, we brought goods for sale from afar: sheep wool from the Bedouins, copper dishes from our homeland. Here we will need to load with tin, which is being transported from the distant cold islands, from the north. And then already forward, on the way back. At home, we will sell the product very profitably.

Here, in Spain, another new colony of my fellow countrymen will be founded.

Phenicia in the 1st millennium BC
Phoenicians sea travel

Enriching themselves at the expense of their colonies, Phoenician, Carthaginian seafarers gradually began to go far beyond the Mediterranean Sea. During this period of the heyday of the Phoenician and Carthaginian navigation, the sea route became a means of communication between the three continents of the Mediterranean and more distant countries that were located outside Gibraltar.

The Phoenicians were the first of the peoples of the Mediterranean to reach the shores of present-day England and here they received tin, which was very valuable at that time. By exchange, they also received amber, which was then so valued at that time, delivered here by dry route from the Baltic States to the Atlantic coast.

Carthaginian sailors, going out into the ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar, which they called “the pillars of Melkart” (the supreme god of Tyrus), also sailed along the western coast of Africa many times.

The description of one of such sea expeditions of the brave Carthaginian seafarers is known to us in the Greek translation. This journey, called Hannon's journey, dates back to around the 6th or 5th century. BC. Although the expedition of the Carthaginian sailor is described as an entertaining adventure novel, nevertheless, all his information, according to the opinion of authoritative historians, corresponds to reality. It is possible to trace the path of the expedition step by step on the map, comparing the data on this trip with what we know about the geography of the west coast of Africa.

With the help of the Egyptians, and sometimes Israel and Judea, the Phoenician cities sent sea expeditions not only to the northwest and southwest, but also to the then less accessible south.

In this case, the Phoenician ships probably reached the Indian Ocean through the Red Sea.

One of these sea voyages is well written in the Bible, which tells of an expedition to the gold-rich country of Ophir, organized by Hiram, king of Tire, and Solomon, king of Israel.

But the most ambitious enterprise must be considered the sea expedition of the Phoenicians, which they made on behalf of the Egyptian king Necho at the end of the 7th century. BC. Within three years they circled Africa and returned through the “Pillars of Melqart”, accomplishing this outstanding feat more than two thousand years before Vasco da Gama.

World History "Volume 1.

ed. Yu.P. Frantseva, State Publishing House of Political Literature, 1953.

About 4000 years ago, tribes first appeared in the Mediterranean, namely its eastern part, which in Ancient Greece were given a special name - the Phoenicians. They went down in history primarily as the most famous navigators of the past.

Name history

It is known that the name of the country - Phenicia - literally sounds like a beautiful adjective - "Purple". And this analogy arose for a reason: the tribes obtained a bright dye for fabrics - purple - which was fixed as the color of the kings. But there is also a second meaning - "Fenechu", which means shipbuilders. It is also justified: the Phoenicians knew how to create ships so strong that they were not afraid of even the strongest sea storms and storms. Swimming was provided by slave rowers arranged in two rows. Having laid the foundations of shipbuilding, these brave people were considered the inventors of the first galleys - multi-tiered rowboats.

Endangered and Carthage

The Phoenician colonies occupied almost the entire coast of the Mediterranean Sea; they also included part of the Atlantic coast and North Africa. Many trading cities were founded there, in particular, Carthage, which had an advantageous geographical position and became the largest trade center with other countries, as well as the protection of the Phoenician colonies during the aggravated struggle with the Greeks and Tartessites.

Travels of famous sailors

The tribes known as talented traders, smart creditors and resourceful city builders also became famous as the best seafarers, who were known not only to Ancient Phenicia, but the whole world. They sailed in the Mediterranean and Atlantic, off the northern lands of Europe and the western African coasts, were the first to travel around the entire African continent, which lasted 2.5 years. This truly grandiose undertaking took place on behalf of the Egyptian king in the 7th century BC, a millennium before Vasco da Gama, proved that the sea surrounds Africa on all sides, excluding the junction with Asia.

There was also a report about the sun, which was on the right, and not on the left, because the travelers were in the other hemisphere of the Earth, which almost for the first time gave reason to assume about the unique shape of the planet - a ball, although at that time it was difficult to believe in it. There were also rare and inaccessible at that time expeditions to the south through the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean, this is even mentioned in the Bible. Moreover, these sailors were the first to see the shores of modern Great Britain and brought tin and Baltic amber there.

Around 500 BC NS. the Phoenician fleet sailed west through the Strait of Gibraltar and, establishing several small colonies on the Moroccan coast, sailed a little further south, reaching the Gulf of Guinea. The voyages of the Phoenician sailors are weighty expanded ancient geographical knowledge, despite the fact that many discoveries were kept secret by the Phoenicians - and history confirms this: until the 15th century, almost no one risked sailing along the western part of the African continent.

Other achievements of the Phoenicians: some interesting facts

It's safe to say that so many discoveries in antiquity were not made by any other people. And, even despite the fact that by no means in all cases it is the Phoenicians who are the authors of inventions, it was they who introduced them into life, thereby changing the course of civilization:

• created the alphabet, who began a triumphant journey around the world, supplanting almost all other forms of writing; it is interesting that all the letters of the alphabet, the number of which numbered more than two dozen, were consonants;
• the first in the world have thought of keeping the fish from spoiling with the help of salt, supplying products to the farthest countries; by the way, it was salt, which at that time was valued without exaggeration as worth its weight in gold, that the Phoenicians owe their outstanding wealth;
• began to extract paint from mollusks, which became a symbol of royal luxury, and this achievement happened by chance: a dog accidentally gnawed the shell;
• again the first in the world began to produce glass in furnaces from ordinary sand and soda; masks were made from the resulting glass, which covered the faces of the then deceased;
• they brought grapes and olives to North Africa, which then came to Spain, where they are still grown, they bought papyrus from the Egyptians and invented war machines.

Thus, the legacy of this civilization had a tremendous impact on the further development of mankind.

If this message is useful to you, it's good to see you.

Phenicia was located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea (now Lebanon). Phenicia consisted of many separate cities with surrounding lands belonging to them, and kings ruled them. Such cities are called policies - city-states. Among the Phoenician city-states, Byblos, Tire and Sidon were particularly prominent. Phoenician cities never united into a single state.

The Phoenicians have always tried to keep their discoveries secret. At the turn of the 6th-5th centuries BC, another Phoenician sailor, Gannon, sailed along the coast of West Africa and probably reached Cameroon. The account of this voyage ("pericles") was displayed for all to see in the main temple of Carthage.

Subsequently, the coast of Central, East and South Africa for almost one and a half thousand years turned into one huge white spot for European sailors. Until the 15th century, no one ventured to sail along the western coast of Africa towards the equator by a route long familiar to the Phoenicians.

Phenicia is a very interesting country that was one of the first to prove the importance of international trade. Occupying only a narrow strip of land between the Mediterranean Sea and the Lebanese mountains, lacking rich land resources, arable fields and pastures, the Phoenicians managed to become one of the most influential states in the region through trade. Unable to properly engage in agriculture and cattle breeding, the Phoenicians grew grapes and olives on the slopes of the Lebanese mountains. Wine was made from grapes, and fragrant oil was made from olive. The Lebanese mountains were also rich in timber, which served as the material for the creation of a powerful merchant and navy.
The Phoenicians began to trade with neighboring countries in wine, oil, construction timber, glassware, and purple dyed fabrics. Developing sea trade routes, the Phoenicians sailed farther and farther along the northern and southern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. On their way on the coast, they founded small settlements that served as trading posts and transshipment bases for the Phoenician ships. So the Phoenicians founded colonies on the Mediterranean islands - Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. The Phoenicians colonized the northern coast of Africa and the southern coast of modern Spain. In those days, ships usually sailed not on the open sea, but along the coastline. The location of the colonies allowed the Phoenicians to control all maritime trade.
Enriching themselves at the expense of their colonies, the Phoenician navigators gradually began to go far beyond the Mediterranean Sea. They came up with the design of a ship with a keel, which made it more stable, maneuverable and fast in sea navigation. The speed and capacity of their ships gave an advantage when attacking small settlements and taking prisoners into slavery. Often, the Phoenicians did not even have to attack anyone, since they cunningly lured small children onto their ships, promising to give them beautiful gifts, and then immediately sailed away. For one child, you could get a bull or a silver jug. The slave trade was hugely profitable. In search of new goods and slaves, the Phoenicians sailed farther and farther from their home.
The Phoenicians were the first of the peoples of the Mediterranean to reach the shores of present-day England and here they received tin, which was very valuable at that time. By exchange, they also received amber, which was then delivered here by land from the Baltic States, on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. The Phoenicians reached the west coast of Africa and even made, probably, a successful attempt to round the African continent. The most ambitious enterprise should be considered the sea expedition of the Phoenicians, which they made on behalf of the Egyptian king Necho at the end of the 7th century. BC. Within three years they circled Africa and returned through the Strait of Gibraltar, accomplishing this remarkable feat more than two thousand years before Vasco da Gama.
During this period of the heyday of Phoenician navigation, the sea route became a means of communication between Europe, Asia and Africa, as well as countries that were outside Gibraltar. Control over international maritime trade made Phenicia perhaps the very first maritime trading power.

The World History. Volume 3 Age of Iron Badak Alexander Nikolaevich

Phoenicians sea travel

Enriching themselves at the expense of their colonies, Phoenician, Carthaginian seafarers gradually began to go far beyond the Mediterranean Sea. During this period of the heyday of the Phoenician and Carthaginian navigation, the sea route became a means of communication between the three continents of the Mediterranean and more distant countries that were located outside Gibraltar.

The Phoenicians were the first of the peoples of the Mediterranean to reach the shores of present-day England and here they received tin, which was very valuable at that time. By exchange, they also received amber, which was then so valued at that time, delivered here by dry route from the Baltic States to the Atlantic coast.

Carthaginian sailors, going out into the ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar, which they called the "pillars of Melkart" (the supreme god of Tyrus), also sailed along the western coast of Africa many times.

The description of one of such sea expeditions of the brave Carthaginian seafarers is known to us in the Greek translation. This journey, called Hannon's journey, dates back to around the 6th or 5th century. BC NS. Although the expedition of the Carthaginian sailor is described as an entertaining adventure novel, nevertheless, all his information, according to the opinion of authoritative historians, corresponds to reality. It is possible to trace the path of the expedition step by step on the map, comparing the data on this trip with what we know about the geography of the west coast of Africa.

With the help of the Egyptians, and sometimes Israel and Judea, the Phoenician cities sent sea expeditions not only to the northwest and southwest, but also to the then less accessible south.

In this case, the Phoenician ships probably reached the Indian Ocean through the Red Sea.

One of these sea voyages is well written in the Bible, which tells of an expedition to the gold-rich country of Ophir, organized by Hiram, king of Tire, and Solomon, king of Israel.

But the most ambitious enterprise must be considered the sea expedition of the Phoenicians, which they made on behalf of the Egyptian king Necho at the end of the 7th century. BC NS. Within three years they circled Africa and returned through the "Pillars of Melqart", accomplishing this outstanding feat more than two thousand years before Vasco da Gama.

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