Stone sculptures on the old Cossack Kurgans - "Polovtsy Stone Baba".
Ancient stone sculptures are almost all local history museums of our south: in Rostov and Novocherkassk, Azov and Krasnodar, Stavropol and the cities of Crimea. A lot of them. Hundreds of stone statues ... They are no less mysterious and no less monumental than mysterious idols of Easter Island ... The researchers argued and argue so far, who belonged to these statues of our steppes, who put them, and for what purpose. "

It turns out that "stood these stone idols first in the mounds and hills, then they were transported to the peasant mearts and in landlord estates, and then placed in museums, or put on fun ... in the provincial city gardens."
<<В XVIII веке их называли "человек камен" или "девка камена">\u003e. Such statues were found not only in the south.

They were discovered, for example, in Moscow: in Kuntsevo and Zenino (reading in the Imp. Obrah and the antiquities of Russian at Moscow. University, 1870, KN.III). Kuntsevo is the West of Moscow, and Zenino - 21 miles east of Moscow, as of 1870. One of the stone statues today is in the Russian State Library, in the recording hall. Anyone can see it. She was brought to Moscow from the Kharkiv province in 1839 on the instructions of the Imperial Society for the history and antiquities of Russian.
The characteristic feature of these sculptures - they hold in the hands of the "pressed to the belly vessel, a bowl or horn". There is such a vessel in the statue exhibited in the State Library Hall,

On the back of the statue carved a big oblique cross. He is known as the Andreevsky Cross, that is, the Cross of Andrei and the First-Called. Starting from the times of Peter I, the flag with such a slash is the flag of naval forces. By the way, on the side of this male statue, the images of the saber curve and a quiver with a bow and arrow are carved. This weapon is really typical for Russian warriors even in the XVII century.

Historians believe (as we understand, since the times of Romanov) these statues traces of the alien conquest of Russia by Polovtsy tribes. The historian writes: "For a Russian man, these stone monsters were the personification of the domination of Polovtsy above the steppes. Therefore, the statues sought to destroy and spoil." This picture is a systematic damage of ancient inscriptions and sculptures to us already known: Russian sarcophages, Egyptian statues and stone inscriptions, etc. were injured. Who didn't you like? It is hardly to local residents.
Today it is believed that the conquerors of the Polovtsy, who put the statues, came to Russia from afar, from the steppes of Mongolia, Tuva and Altai. Then, they say, "stone women", together with the promotion of the Polovtsy, spread further to the West and eventually covered the entire space of Russia.

No "riddles of stone women" does not exist.

It originated only because the invaders of the Romanov and their Western European hosts replaced many of the old Cossack customs on new, including the funeral customs. And it began to be considered that Slavic customs were always like that they became only with Romanov. What's wrong. In addition, with the Romanovs were written and significantly edited by the chronicles. Many documents were destroyed. A relatively small set of chronicles declared "very ancients" remained. And it began to be reckoned that if some customs were not reflected in these "Romanovsky antiquities", "therefore," these customs are not Russian, there were no them in Russia. And if their traces still find, "consequently," they are traces of some foreign conquest, not Russian.
Here is an example of such a "reasoning". It is known that a huge number of stone statues - which are now in question - found mainly in Russia. However, they are "found far in the east, in the endless steppes of Kazakhstan, Altai, Mongolia, Tuva." Consequently, "historians say, Russia was conquered by aliens from Mongolia, that is, from the very far country. On the way "Mongols" allegedly seized Kazakhstan, Altai, etc. So they write: "At the beginning of the second millennium, Polovtsy broke through to the West. They passed the rapid march, and they appeared on the Volga to the middle of the eleventh century."

The direction of conquest was reverse. From Russia - in different directions.
In particular, both east. And this can be understood even from the next simple observation.
It turns out that "Polovtsy" stone sculptures in the steppes of Kazakhstan, Altai, Mongolia and Tuva "as a rule ... exclusively men, often with chopped mustache (note - like Cossacks - auth.)."
But on the territory of Russia "among the earliest Western (that is, Russians, and not the eastern - aut.) Polovtsy statues of more than 70 percent are women's statues. Before us is a mystery to which the science is not yet able to answer."
We, admit, no riddle here see. The specified fact simply shows us - where was the birthplace of those soldiers who put the statues.
Motherland, naturally, put both female and men's statues on the graves. For men and women (families) of this nation lived here. That is - in Russia. And in distant military campaigns in the troops of women was very small. And men died. They were buried here in the campaign. On the distant homeland of the body usually did not take. Therefore, in those lands where the people came as a conqueror, almost exclusively male statues were to be left. What we see in Kazakhstan, Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, etc. By the way, the name of these statues "Polovtsy" could well mean simply "field", that is, standing in the field.
So, in our opinion, "Polovtsy" stone sculptures are old Russian gravestone monuments.
By the way, it is impossible not to pay attention to the strange fact that on the photos of stone sculptures available to us, as well as on the statue in the Russian State Library, they are shot down by the face of the sculptures, and otherwise they are well preserved. Why did they destroy the faces?

Is it because they often had a pronounced Slavic type? Or a mustache knocked up?
A direct medieval testimony has been preserved that these stone sculptures were put on the peoples of Mongolia, that is, as we understand, the peoples of Russia-Horde. Podorov-Davydov writes:<<Любопытное свидетельство оставил в середине XIII века западноевропейский монах Вильгельм Рубрук, который отправился к монгольскому хану в далекий Каракорум, в ЦЕНТРАЛЬНУЮ МОНГОЛИЮ
(that is, in our reconstruction, in the Central Rus - auth.) ... Among other information Rubruk informs us: "Comanas poured a big hill over the departed and erect the statue facing the east and keeping him in her hand before the navel Bowl "\u003e\u003e.
It is difficult to disagree with the opinion of historians that Rubruk has here in mind that "Polovtsy women" (bowl in front of the navel of the statue).
As for the "Mongolian mounds", it is most likely connants, since the word horse in the old Russian language sounded and wrote like a comon. See, for example, "the word about the regiment of Igor".
Stone Scythian sculptures stood not only in the east. They are in Europe. In fig. The male stone "idol of the Scythian Sanctuary ... arranged in the ancient Roma Kurgan over the Novosiel crossing through the Nizhny Danube."

Fig shows a female stone statue that is in the Hermitage today in St. Petersburg. The museum sign is reading: "Polovtsy sculpture of the XII century. Krasnodar edge." The face of the statue is badly damaged. The bowl is pressed to the belly. Behind, the Balyk hangs on his back.
Figure shows a stone statue from the State Historical Museum of Moscow. Women's figure, pressed to the stomach "bowl". By the way, for some reason there is no museum sign, which is reported - where the statue was discovered. Was it found in Moscow? Maybe the tablets do not hang because from the point of view of the Scaliger-Millerian history, "the Polovtsy in Moscow never lived," and therefore, to find similar statues to be considered as if even indecent.
So there are Scythian-Ordan's sculptures nameless, without plates.

The museum presents the ancient stone Ordane statues from the Altai district, Xinjiang, PRC.
We note a very characteristic detail of the overwhelming majority of Scythian Skyframes - they are pressed with their hands to the stomach, to the navel, a certain object that is considered to the bowl. It is very interesting that practically the same plot depicts some stone statues in distant America, for example, in the territories where the "ancient" Maya had ever lived.

a photograph of one of these statues in Yucatan, Merida Museum. It is believed that the similar stone sculptures did Maya and Tolteci, p.9. Here, the human figure is half a half offit. Both hands presses a flat bowl. Another old stone statue carved by Toltecs and represented in rice also depicts a seven-semi-sewing man, the Chac Mool god, presses to the navel, to the stomach, bowl.

The statue is in Chichen Ice, at the entrance to the large "temple of warriors."
We note that such statues depicted gods, that is, to such sculptures in America treated with great respect.

The postures of Scythian statues and the preserved American are slightly different, but the main motive is a bowl, pressed against the navel with hands, is exactly the same one. An explanation of such duplicates is most likely very simple.
We are based on traces of community cultures arising from the conquest of Russia-Horde and the Omman of the Atamania of the American continent in the XV century. Horde Cossacks colonizers brought their customs with them.

Veretnikov A.M. ::: Maja and Aztec cities

According to the majority of researchers, the Mayan culture is one of the greatest achievements of humanity in antiquity. This civilization existed for almost a thousand years. Maya Indians were the first developed people of America, with whom the Spaniards collided during the conquest of the lands of the Western Hemisphere.

By the time of the arrival of Europeans, Maya occupied an extensive territory. Under its limits, scientists usually distinguish three cultural and geographic areas. For example, the northern covered the entire Peninsula Yucatan, which was a flat limestone plain with shrub vegetation. She crossed by chains of low stony hills. The absence of rivers, streams and lakes, poor soils were aware of the difficulties of agriculture. Not quite favorable for accommodation was the southern area that included mountainous areas and the Pacific coast South Mexico and Guatemala. More profitable natural conditions was the central region covering northern part Guatemalas and the territory adjacent from the west, where such Mexican States are located, like Chiapas, Tabasco and Campeche. The central region is a hilly limestone lowland. Its most covered with wet tropical forests, which alternate with grassy savannahs, swampy shorts and lakes.

In such difficult conditions and were built by Indians Maya, at first modest huts of wood and clay, and subsequently large stone cities. Despite the fact that the tools of labor were extremely primitive and manufactured only from wood, bones and stone, Maya managed to achieve striking perfection in architecture, sculpture, painting, in the production of ceramics.

The development of the ancient civilization of Maya lasted almost ten centuries. At the end of the 7th century, Maya reached the highest degree of cultural development. By this time, the Indians were erected by elegant temples, giant road roads, numerous pyramids and palaces. For centuries, old villages and cities were expanded and expanded, new ones arose. All this lasted almost until the end of the I millennium. e. In the 9th century, some catastrophe occurred in the prosperous lands and in the white-stone cities of Maya. As a result, architectural construction in the cities completely stopped. Skillful sculptors did not build more huge stone steles with the faces of rulers and gods, and skillful stone cutters did not decorate them with fringe and elegant hieroglyphs.

The largest Mayan centers began to arrive. Residents left them. In just a few decades of the city of the ancient Maya, they were securely covered by human eyes, hitting the chain arms of the rapidly crushed evergreen jungle. The empty plates and abandoned buildings were covered with forest greens. Liana and roots of trees destroyed the foundations and overlappings of massive buildings, and low-growing shrubs filled all the free parts of the space, where the streets and road roads were launched. It is precisely in this that one of the greatest mysteries of the culture-phenomenon, to which the ancient civilization of Maya is counted. Cities of the classic period, erected in the i millennium N. e., even in the pre-column period, the jungle was absorbed. And when the Columbus people set foot on the land of America at the end of the XV century, and at the beginning of the XVI century, the first expeditions of conquistadors arrived here, even the next descendants of people who had once lived there were forgotten about the ancient Mayan civilization.

In the history of Maya, there are really a lot of mysteries. And the very first of them is the mystery of the origin of this nation. Of the many hypotheses of the most significant and substantiated in modern science on the study of the oldest civilizations, the doctrine of the famous Mexican archaeologist, a large connoisseur in the field of Mayan Alberto Rus Luille culture. Like some other researchers, he believes that in the period between the II millennium BC. e. and IV century n. e. And the formation of Maya as nation has occurred. The researcher called this period proto-classic and gave him the following characteristic: "Significant progress in agriculture provided the existence of centers with a permanent population. Sedded life led to the invention and the development of ceramics, as well as to the formation of the art of sculpture, amazing, despite the simplicity, its amazing power. Platforms and the first pyramids appeared, on which temples made of wood with a palm roof.

Religious beliefs were limited to the worship of individual gods that embodied the forces of nature. During this period, the Mayan culture was significantly different from others, arguing in the Mexican Highlands ("archaic" culture), at the Atlantic coast (Culture of Olmekov) and in the south of Mexico (Sapoteki and Mishtec) ... Separately, it should be noted the construction of platforms and not so numerous in Those days of the pyramids. Such monuments are found almost throughout Maya. "

According to scientists who adhere to the point of view of A. Rus, at the end of the II millennium BC. e. Maya from the mountain and foothill areas began broad colonization of the weakly populated forest plains of Northern Guatemala and Yucatan, which belong to the Northern and central regions of the region. Clay statuettes detected in this area depict people who have characteristic hooked noses and artificially deformed frontal part of the skull. Maya sought to give such a form of the head by the fact that the newborn baby was attached to the forehead and on the back of the flat plank. The skull deformed in this way was the main distinguishing feature of people belonging to the tribe. These features were brightly expressed in the appearance of Maya, until the Spaniards won the countries in the XVI century.

The indisputable evidence that the Mining Maya was somewhat averaged in their development of counterparts from the forest plain zone, is the fact that the major center of the Ancient Maya found in the early 90s of the 20th century, . er) was the predecessor of future crowded cities that arose in the Mayan region already in the first Millennium N. e. This center (Chalchuapu) had a number of stone temples that stood on the tops of the stepped pyramids and were surrounded by widely cobbled areas and many stone sculptures. In the central part of the Mountain Guatemala, on the very outskirts of the capital of this Latin American country, and today you can see separate earth hills of the pyramidal form. These are the remnants of the once large settlement of Maya. Archaeologists called him Kaminaluy ("Hill of the Dead"). The emergence of the settlement dates about the II millennium BC. e.

The culture preceding the classical period of the Mayan civilization (specialists referred to its protocol), the first millennium N. E. According to most researchers, of course, much more modest and is distinguished by many qualitative indicators. However, the continuity between them is determined quite clearly. This is especially noticeable in comparison of the following characteristic signs: Monumental stone architecture With a stepped (false) arch, the mandatory presence of carved stone stele with sculptural images and inscriptions, hieroglyphic writing, the royal tombs with the clock temples under them, the layout of the main architectural complexes around rectangular courtyards and areas that are oriented on the parties of the world. All these features, inherent in reports of architecture, have undoubtedly served as the basis for the subsequent development and heyday of the Mayan culture.

The first information about the civilization of Maya historians began to be found in archives and libraries among few days from writing evidence. Among them and the narration of the Indians themselves, recorded in their native language, but the letters of the Latin alphabet shortly after the arrival of the Western hemisphere of conquistadors. Such, for example, are the Epos Maya-KICH "Popol-Wuh", the books of Yucatan Indians "Chilam Balam".

The fundamental work dedicated to the Ethnicity of the Indians wrote lived in the XVI century and more than once in the New World Spanish Bishop Diego de Landa. A detailed report on staying in Guatemala, addressed to the Spanish King Philip II, left the Royal official of Diego Garcia de Palacio, who visited the service here in 1576. During his trip, he discovered the majestic ruins of some ancient city on the banks of the River Copan. In the report, De Palacio wrote: "I tried to find out with all the care of the Local Indians: if there are no information about people who lived in the ancient legends in this city. But they did not have books with the description of their ancient history ... True, they told me that in ancient times came here from Yucatan the great ruler, who built all these buildings, but then, throwing everything, returned to his native edges. "

The city of Copan was erected in the classical period of the ancient civilization of Maya, in about the middle of the VII century. According to the descriptions that were left in the XVI century Palacio, and later, in the middle of the XIX century, J. Stephenson, Copan was discovered in the West of Honduras, near the Guatemalan border, Sakap and Chikimula departments. The so-called Copan City Center covers an area of \u200b\u200b30 hectares. Local architecture was distinguished by the fact that it was absent big pyramids And highly ascended temples with huge "roofing crests". Copan impresses a huge Acropolis, which consisted of several pyramids, platforms, terraces, temples and yards. They were located on the territory of the city. One of the main attractions is a staircase leading to Acropolis. It consists of 63 sculpture steps and has about 2,500 hieroglyphs. Temples are especially allocated. The construction of three of them researchers belong to 756-771 years. One of the temples was dedicated to Venus.

Huge interest is the central square. Nine monoliths are erected on it, which serve as the basis for altars, characterized by elegant finish. According to scientists, in Kopan, there was one of the largest astronomical observatories, which had the ancient cities of Maya. The American Archaeologist S. Morley assumed that the number of Copan's population during his highest heyday reached 200 thousand people. However, according to other researchers, the scientist has somewhat overwhelmed the number of residents. Nevertheless, Copan was considered in ancient times the most outstanding center of Maya civilization.

To the north of Copan, already in the Guatemalan territory, is the city of Kirigua. It is not so impressive in size, however, it is of great interest as a monument of ancient civilization. In its territory, archaeologists managed to detect amazing steles covered with embossed images. One of them reaches a decade meter and in size exceeds all other monoliths found in the territory of mesoamer.

At the end of the 18th century, in the depths of the Jungle Chiapas (Mexico), another Ancient Maja city was found - Palenk, abandoned by residents at the end of the first I millennium. e. (X century). Its bizarre blonde ruins, lost in the thick Mexican Selve (Selva - the name of wet rainforests in the countries of South and Central America), found the Indians and reported this to the local priest. From him about Nakhodka recognized officials of the Spanish administration. At about the same time (1773), Palenka was visited by the captain of the Spanish army Antonio del Rio. He one of the first enough to examine the central part of the giant city and gave a description of his architectural monuments. After the attachment (1822), the Spanish officer's report was translated into english And published in the UK. Compiled in a very prominent form, this document, however, did not cause a noticeable reaction in European scientific circles. Only after 17 jet, having fallen into the eyes of the American researcher John Lloyd Stevens, the narrative of the Spaniard inspired him to search for the forgotten cities Maya.

In 1839, Stevens equipped an expedition and went deep into the rainforest of Honduras. The expedition contained a close friend of the researcher, a permanent satellite in his numerous wanders, an English artist F. Caselwood.

Overcoming all sorts of difficulties, Stevens and expedition members visited not only in Palenk, but also visited the ruins of such Mayan cities such as Copan, Ushmal, and a number of others found by Spanish conquestors, missionaries, royal officials in the middle of the XVI century.

Returning from the journey, John Stephen soon published a book in which he outlined the results of his observations in an exciting and bright form. The documentary authenticity of the publication was given the brilliantly filled drawings of the artist Caselwood. J. Stevens's energetic and talented researcher considers Maja's antiquity with a full basis, a man who managed to break through the wall in the wall of oblivion of the prevention of the Mesoamer. His findings made a huge effect on european scientists and the United States. It was this circumstance that led to the topic that at the end of the XIX century on Maya began the first archaeological excavations. At the disposal of experts, the richest material, which impassively and objectively reflected the picture of the past. At the beginning of the 20th century, the scientific institutions of Mexico, the United States, as well as individual countries of Europe, have begun to a systematic study of the most important monuments of the Maja culture.

One of the most brilliant cities of the ancient civilization of the Maya of the classic period, many researchers consider the architectural complex Palenk. His story has almost ten centuries. He existed since the end of the first one millennium BC. e. until the end of the I millennium N. e. The name of this city, like almost all other ancient cities of Maya, is conditional. In their choice, modern researchers were most often guided by purely random signs. Palenka translated from Spanish means "hedge", "fence", "fenced place."

In the late 40s of the 20th century, the Mexican archaeologist Alberto Rus Luille led the large archaeological expedition of the National Institute of Anthropology and the history of Mexico, which was engaged in the excavations of Palenque. At the very beginning of the excavation, the scientist drew attention to the unusual floor of one of the temples of this ancient city. It was laid out with large stone slabs. When, in the process of excavations, one of the plates managed to lift, the tunnel was discovered and several stages of the stone staircase leading down, in the depths of the giant pyramid. However, the tunnel, and all the subsequent steps of the stairs were littered with huge blocks of stone, clogged with rubble and earth. Four years required expedition participants in order to overcome the obstacle on their way. But it came on June 15, 1952. The tunnel was finally cleaned and at the very end rested in the likeness of some camera, the entrance to which the huge triangular stone flashed. His weight, as it turned out later, was more tons. Before this peculiar door lay skeletons of five young men and one girl. In the course of subsequent studies, it was possible to establish that their death was violent. Alberto Rus came to the conclusion that the bodies of the dead were sacrificed on some particularly important occasion. When the workers managed to move from the spot this huge triangular door, the guess of the scientist was confirmed. The stone closed the entrance to the tomb. It was very significant sizes - 9 m in length and 4 m in width. In the middle of the crypt was massive stone sarcophagus. From above, it was covered with a huge stove with cut-sized images and hieroglyphic inscriptions. Inside sarcophagus, archaeologists discovered the skeleton of a high middle-aged man. On the front of the skull lay a beautifully preserved elegant mosaic mask, incrouted by jade, obsidian and pearl.

The pyramid's unique for the meso-American culture was performed by the functions of the Mausoleum in which he was resting to scientists, the remains of one of the powerful representatives of the ancient city. The construction where the sarcophague was discovered is known in archeology called the "Temple of the inscriptions".

Removing his own intuition, the excellent knowledge of the material that was accumulated by this time in the study of the oldest civilization, Alberto Rus concluded that the brilliant Mayan architects decided to hide from the extra eyes of Mausoleum, where the great hierarch was resting, buried together with her numerous retinue, and Placed sarcophagus at the base of the pyramid.

The archaeological scientist left a very bright story about how this discovery was committed, which made it possible to solve one of the main secrets of a thousand years ago. The researcher wrote: "In 1949, under the ruins of one of the buildings of Palace Palenk, we found a magnificent stone slabwhere 262 hieroglyphs were viewed and the image of the submission scene. Characters and signs are made very deep relief. Palensk art is inherent in the amazing sense of composition, subtlety and rigor. The initial date is proposed in a figured version, that is, in the form of figures of people and animals, when the first means numbers, and the second periods. Thus, Maya emphasized the close relationship between man and time. "

The studies have made it possible to establish that the giant crypt found inside the pyramid and being the foundation of the temple of the inscriptions is one of the Maja's grandiose achievements in the field of architecture and sculpture. For example, the size of the coating sarcophage plate is 8 m 2. It itself is a monolithic block, the volume of which is 7 m 3. This unit, in turn, is installed on six stone backups. According to the unanimous opinion of the colleagues of Rus, which directly participated in these excavations, all the details of sarcophagus decorated with relief images are chronological information and a certain symbolism and are made with great skill.

The architectural complex Palenk, in addition to this main find, which has become, in fact, the sensation, included three pyramids with the temples of the sun, the cross and the deciduous cross.

This city center, its architecture and sculpture differed in peculiar features that were inherent in the Mayan classical period.

The most common building material was a stone. The buildings were built mostly from limestone. Conditioned from the rocks of the breed has become overgrown, thus obtaining lime.

Maya was mixed with sand, added water and prepared cementing solution from these components.

In conjunction with stone dust, he gave a variety of another magnificent building material - a piece (something like a modern putty, cooked from a mixture of plaster and chalk). The thing was covered with walls and ceilings. Using the extraordinary plasticity of this material, Maya masterly made stucco decorations that were applied to walls and columns of buildings, their bases, friezes. Applying a sharp cutter, obviously from Obsidian (glass of volcanic origin), on the plates covered with the piece, were applied by easily the battered contours lines with the images of deities, hieroglyphic inscriptions. Limestone stones also used for the manufacture of various decorations, dishes. From limestone they did shoals, sickles, steles, altars, statues.

The main features of the city center in Palenka was the presence of a portication with three, and sometimes five inputs. They were formed by erecting wide columns. Inside the central rear room, which was a separate architectural unit, there was a sanctuary. It performed the function to protect the symbol of the cult, which was dedicated to the temple. Small premises that were on the sides of the sanctuary were cassels of priests.

In Palenka, as in all other Maya detected during the excavations of the palaces and temples, the likeness of the stone rings can be found on both sides of the entrances on the wall or column. This or a piece of stone inserted into a small excavation, or a small stone cylinder embedded vertically into the space between the two stones.

Such devices served to attach ropes to which the curtain was suspended. He performed the function of a kind of door and covered the room from rains and winds, saved from cold. Ancient architect Mayan in the design of buildings also used protruding canopies on which special cornices strengthened. During the shower, water flowed on them, bypassing the walls or columns decorated with reliefs from the thing, preventing them in the same way from erosion and rapid destruction.

Of great interest is the evolution that Maya Indians accomplished in urban planning. Their first buildings erected with ritual goals or as dwellings of priests and leaders were nothing more than simple huts that had different sizes. The foundation for them at this time (IV-II century BC er) served platforms of various heights, lined with a stone and a piece. In a later report (closer to the first millennium, N. e.) The foundations for buildings began to turn into a stepped pyramids, which were created by overlaying one platform to another. However, even during this period, the temple crowded with a pyramid, despite the fact that its foundation was decorated with rich alabastral masks, was the ordinary hut with a palm roof. And only in the classical development period, starting from the first centuries of our era, a stone arch came to replace the palm roof. He got the name of a false arch or Mayan arch. This architectural innovation is not an invention Maya. Some peoples of old world were covered with their homes and buildings, such as Miksians, for several millennia earlier than the first sprouts of the culture of ancient Indian civilization arose.

Mayan arch had a feature. It was erected by rapprochement of walls, starting from a certain height. The rows of stones were superimposed by one on the other so that each subsequent opposed the previous one. When the hole above became very small, it was covered with a stove. The new arch was much stronger. After all, it was built from stone and did not give in, unlike the tree, the destructive and destructive effects of a wet tropical climate. This type of overlaps provided an acute angle of the arch, its greater height and a huge massiveness of the walls, which this alignment relied. At the same time, the internal, useful volume of buildings was very small compared to external. Due to false arch architectural facilities They had a small width of the premises with sufficient length.

The Mayan arch had another significant disadvantage. He allowed to overlap, due to the characteristics of his design, only narrow spaces. However, in some cases, the ancient architects still managed to build such overlaps in the gravestone of the temple of the inscriptions in Palencé and in transverse corridors that divide the central building of the governor's palace and the side extensions in Ushmale. To increase the inner area, Mayan architects blocked the room in the middle of the longitudinal wall. In the center she had the door. In such an architectural building, the building was overlapped with two false array, based on one end on the middle, and the other on the outer wall.

In the classic period of Maya introduced an innovation in the construction of bases (foundations) of their temples, ritual buildings and palaces. From using simple platforms, they switched to so-called pyramids. However, in contrast to the ancient Egyptians, Maya never sought to achieve indeed a pyramidal geometric volume. Overlaying platforms one to another, they were obtained as a result of a truncated form. At its tetrahedoy vertex, a small, bowl of all two- or three-room temple was erected. The number of ledges, or members to which the body of the pyramid was shared, could be the most diverse. From the foot of the pyramid to the shrine door usually led a long, cool and wide staircase. If the pyramid was very large, then such ladders were located on all its four sides. The configuration of such pyramids was usually used to erect the cult builds on the tops of large hills. Natopathy Maya has any hill was a deification for the forces of nature. According to the beliefs of the Indians, rains, winds, rivers lived on the hill. They believed that the higher the hill, the closer to the sky. Therefore, the temple should have rushed to heaven, where the gods live.

A characteristic architectural model of the Mayan temple of the heyday of civilization (the second half of the VII century) archaeologists and researchers consider the famous Temple of the Sun in Palenca. It is erected at a low pyramid, which is divided into five floors. The temple itself is located on a truncated top of the pyramid. It is oblong, small-sized building, which has an inner longitudinal wall. Two narrow segments of the facade wall are adjacent to the right and left ends, and two more rectangular columns are delivered between them. Thus, the facade is something like a portico. His pillars are decorated with pieces. The front wall is cut into three doors leading to the room where the small sanctuary is located. On the back of his wall placed a bas-relief, depicting the mask of the Sun God. This mask is suspended on two crossed spears. Near them in the pose of worship depicted two human figures. It is this sculptural detail of the sanctuary gave a reason to some researchers to call this building in Palencé Temple of the Sun.

Flat roof of the temple crown roofing comb. He, as in many other Maja's cult buildings, achieves considerable height. The comb consists of two converging in the upper part under an acute angle of walls that have numerous holes resembling windows. The surface of the walls of the ridge is covered with a rich geometric ornament, in the center of which is an image of a mythical monster. According to experts, the comb did not have any constructive function and served only to increase general height building. The temple of the Sun, from the point of view of architects, distinguishes the equilibiousness of all its parts, nobility and simplicity of the outlines. This is one of the most expressive and impressive monuments of Mayan architecture.

The main features of the Mayan architecture associated with the construction cult facilities, You can trace the example of other urban centers that existed in the VII-IX centuries, Tikal, Piedras Negrat, Ushmal, Yashchilana, Copan, Kirigua. Differences can be detected only in detail. So, for example, the temple pyramids of Tikal, the largest city The classic period was very high, but had a relatively small foundation. In appearance, they reminded the towers. The highest of them - the Pyramid of the IV Temple has a height of 45 m, and together with the temple and decorative comb, it takes more than 70 m. (For comparison, it is an approximate height of a modern twenty-storey building.)

Mayan builders perfectly felt the surrounding landscape. They skillfully had buildings on natural terraces. Architectural compositions at ease and freely fit into the mountain relief. Modern architects amazing the layout of Mayan settlements. Ancient urban planners sought an amazing equilibreence of individual parts of the erected ensembles, their harmonious combination. An important role was played by the color contrast of buildings and the surrounding nature. The architect Mayan covered the walls of the buildings with a white or scarlet piece. Against the background of the blue sky or bright green tropical vegetation, surrounding the structure, it produced a special effect.

The second primary type of Mayan architectural structures was narrow, elongated building. Inside it, as a rule, was divided into several rooms. According to the assumption of researchers, these premises (in archaeological literature they are conventionally called palaces) served as horses for the most notable members of society and priests. For their construction, lime and stone were used. Palaces in one or more floors were almost always erected on the terrace or platform. Usually buildings were grouped near any free space in such a way that inside the complex turned out to be a big, closed on all sides yard (or square). The foundation of the palace was located on the stylobate (artificially created elevation), but it was significantly lower than that of temple structures. The brightest example of such a building is a palace complex in Palenka. It is a whole group of buildings. All of them are located around two large and two small yards. The complex is placed on a huge (104 x 60 m) platform rising from the surface of the Earth by about 10 m. To the foot of the platform, there is a staircase, with which you can get on the territory of large yards. Each building has an oblong shape. The middle of it dissects a solid longitudinal wall, which divides the room into two parallel to the narrow rooms, blocked by lard. In one of the small yards there is a four-story, in the form of a square of the tower. According to researchers, it may have performed the function of the observatory. Ancient Maya has also existed the third type of facilities. In modern archeology, they are named stadiums or buildings for the ball. Detailed description This iconic game gives in his book "The Art of Ancient America" \u200b\u200bthe well-known Russian researcher-mayyanist R. V. Dzhalov: "The cult game in the ball was widespread among the Indian peoples of Central America. The essence of it was that representatives of the rival teams had to drive a massive heavy ball from raw rubber through a large stone ring, fortified vertically in one of the walls of the stadium. The game became complicated by the fact that the palms and feet of the legs to the ball were forbidden - the ball could be sent to the blow of the elbow, the knee or body. " Further, the scientist gives a characteristic of the structure: "These stadiums are usually two massive, walking parallel to each other walls between them and the playground for the game was prevented. The audience was located on the tops of the walls (their width provided such an opportunity) ... climb the stadium allowed the staircase located on the outside of the walls. "

The time of the highest flourishing of the classical civilization of Maya. Modern scientists consider the second half of the I millennium. er, that is, the VII-VIII century. In addition to these largest centers, and very often they are called in archaeological literature by mini-states, like Copan, Palenk, powerful development is obtained by the city of Kirigua, Tikal, Bonampak, Piedras Negrat and many others.

In the X century, a number of significant changes took place in the resettlement of the peoples of Central America. They touched the Mayan tribes. Due to the mysterious catastrophe, the exact explanation of which does not exist to this day, the ancient cities located on the territory of Guatemala and the British Honduras, Palenka, Piederes Negrat, Yashchylan, Copan, Kirigua, Tikal - were left by people, the new Maja resettlement site becomes in This period of time (end IX is the beginning of the X century) Yucatan Peninsula. Tolteci arrived on this peninsula stood at the head of a number of new state unions of Maya. The most significant of them were states with centers in Chichen Ice, Ushmale and Mayapan. It is in the art of these centers, especially on the monuments of Chichen-Itsi, and the Toltec influence affected. This city was located on an absolutely level terrain and was an almost right rectangle of 3 km long and 1 km width. The heart of Chichen-Itsi was a sacred stepped water (Karst Well - Senot). It was he who gave the name of the city. Translated, it means "the mouth of the well of ICA."

The heyday of Chichen-Itsi is associated with the arrival of Yucatan Mexican-Toltec migrants under the leadership of their leader of Cetzalcoatlia (Cukulkan). According to A. Rus, the time of the domination of Toltecs in Yucatan was the epoch of the universal slavery of the People of Maya. A distinctive feature of the architecture of this period in the Mayan architects is the extensive use of columns, which were very often drawn up in the form of fleeting snakes. It was not an accident. Pernata Snake symbolized in the Tolteches of their Supreme God - Cetzalcoatlia. In Pantheon, Maya's gods he entered the name of Kukulkana. It was he who was devoted to the main temple of Chichen-Itsi, known as El Castillo (translated from the city - "Kremlin").

This architectural structure is a massive high pyramid consisting of nine ledges. On each side there is a wide staircase, consisting of 91 steps and bounded by balustrades. The top of the pyramid crowned the temple. He almost completely repeats the plans of the oldest Mayan temples (for example, the Sun Temple in Palenk already described by us). However, there is also a difference. The pyramid of the Cukulkan in the middle of the doorway of the temple itself is two massive columns depicting the body of the funeral snakes. Due to the introduction of these architectural elements, very characteristic of Toltecs, the opening is significantly expanding and divided into three equal parts. Inside the temple, in the Castillo sanctuary, there is another pair of the same columns. The roof of the temple does not have a roofing crest. The pyramid temple is striking the viewer with its monumental and simplicity of forms. Being a center architectural ensemble Cities, he is visible from everywhere. At what point, the traveler would have been the traveler, in the field of his view, this ambitious building is invariably.

Another, no less significant structure in Chichen Ice - the Temple of Warriors. It received this name because there are numerous images of warriors on outdoor reliefs and internal paintings. The base for the temple also serves as a pyramid, but it is significantly lower than that of El Castillo, and only one staircase is built here. Inside the temple there are four rows of columns that support vaults. In addition to reliefs, outside the walls of the structure are decorated with geometric ornament and corrugal magnesium masks. A distinctive feature of the temple of the warriors is an extensive colonnade, located at the foot of the pyramid on the side of the stairs. Four-grooved massive colonnade poles are also covered with reliefs.

Of great interest is the round tower Karakol (from Isp. Carakol - "Snail"). This structure received its name because of twisted, like the sink snail, stairs. This architectural structure is located on two one above the other terraces. Its height reaches 13 m. The small, rectangular shape of the window, cut into the thickness of the walls, is aimed at important astronomical points in accordance with the parties of the world and, obviously, helped conduct careful observation of the sky. By the assumption of researchers, this building performed the function of an astronomical observatory.

In another city of Yucatana - Ushmale - Mayan architects built such masterpieces of architectural art as the pyramid of the wizard, or, as they also called, the pyramid of the priest, the Palace of the ruler, the female "monastery". These buildings are richly decorated. In contrast to earlier structures, the decor presented mainly by geometric ornament and borrowed from Toltec art figures of feathered snakes, fills the entire surface of the wall. The architects and sculptors Maya began to apply a new technique. Very often facade walls they covered a kind of stone mosaic. It was carefully processed stone plates on which the finest thread was applied. Archaeologists calculated that more than 20 thousand stone plates went to the cladding of the ruler's palace, which were carefully seen to each other.

The archaeologists and researchers managed to establish that the dwellings of ordinary people were a sharp contrast to the buildings, which were built to know (priests, rulers of cities, civil leaders), ritual and cult goals, houses of ordinary people, as indicated in their description, drawn up in The XVI century, Spanish Bishop of Landa, were "wooden, covered with grass." Usually such houses were located in removal from other buildings. They occupied unfavorable place in topographic. Residents were raised right at the ground level or on a very low height platform. The base for the house served as a stone laying or just a number of coarse, untreated cobblestones. Paul in such a dwelling was made from the rammed land or covered with lime. The house, as a rule, had a rectangular shape, sometimes his ends were spinled. The farmers and fishermen were erected by the walls of wooden stakes, tightly pressing them to each other and linking the liaans. The frame of the roof rested on four deeply lined pillars. Horizontally laid beams and crossbars Indians were covered with palm leaves or dry grass. The roof was two types: double and four-tight. And in that and in another case she ended with a skate. Here's how it describes the internal location of the housing of a simple person Bishop of Landa: "... make the wall in the middle and along, which shares the whole house, and in this wall leave a few doors on the half, which is called the back of the house, where they have a bed, and another part Beat is very skillfully lime ... And this half is a reception and place for guests, and she has no door, and its whole is open at home ... "

Archaeologists found that most of the houses were oriented by the facade to the East. However, during the excavation, it was found that the houses of the houses could look north, and south, in very rare cases - to the West. In some settlements, the dwellings of ordinary people were formed together with the adjacent lands (possibly, the groceries) the semblance of the estate. It was surrounded by a coarse stones designed without a solution. Between the houses were paved by the streets and uneven tracks. According to the foundations found during the excavations, it can be seen that a small wooden extension was served kitchen, adjacent to the house or stood a few meters from the main housing.

According to evidence contained in the earliest sources, the peoples of Maya were buried the dead "inside their homes or for them" and "usually left the house and threw it after the funeral."

Architecture is one of the most eloquent evidence of maturity of any culture, people or tribe. Therefore, if we talk about the inhabitants of mesoamers and, in particular, about the ancient civilization of Maya, its main town planning principles are characterized by strict observance of proportions. The monumentality of its buildings the architect Mayan was able to emphasize the abundance of free space around them, the location of access roads and squares. In the cities of Maya, not only the pyramids and palaces, but also astronomical observatory, platforms for a ritual ball, colonnades, monumental stairs, grand triumphal arches were built. The manifold of architectural and urban forms of Mayan architects is significantly superior in its level of the architecture of other peoples of Decolumbovy America - Incs, Aztecs, Toltec. Maya created an architecture equal to which was not in all of Indian America.

Regarding the character of Mayan cities, a lot of disputes were conducted. Some of the American archaeologists assumed that the Mayan cities were only religious centers, and from this it follows that a large number of people could live in them. However, the last findings refute this point of view. The famous French Majan School Paul Riva argues that these were real cities in which large groups of people lived. The researcher did the reservation: the numerous "lower" ladies lived in the city center, but at the outskirts. In the city, there were palaces, "monasteries", observatory, playgrounds for the ball, a kind of halls for ritual dancing, wide stairs, magnificent roads and, of course, temples erected at high pyramids. On the outskirts of the cities, according to the scientist, in small houses, or rather, even in shacks surrounded by gardens or fences, a simple person junteled. The number of inhabitants of Mayan cities was extremely high. According to the assumption of the archaeologist Silvanus Morley, the Mayan cities of the second category (American researchers share the Mayan cities in the number of surviving architectural monuments into four categories) have approximately 50 thousand inhabitants. These cities are Americanists include 19 Mayan centers, including Vashaktun, Kobu, Kalakmul, Nakum, Palencé, Yashchylan, Esna, Kirigua.

The population of the Mayan cities of the first category - such as Copan, Tikal, Ushmal and especially Chichen-Itsi, - according to modern scientists, equal to about 200 thousand people. In the first half of the past millennia, the Mayan city significantly exceeded the number of largest European centers such as Paris, Venice, Lisbon, Prague.

High levels reached the sculptural art of the nation of Maya. It had its own characteristic features, and it can be easily distinguished from the art of other peoples of mesoamerics. However, in the Sensia Epoch, the researchers do not exclude the effects on the art of Maya in the field of sculpture of other Indian cultures of Ancient Mexico, in particular the famous creators of giant heads - Olmekov.

This tribe lived on the east coast of Mexico. The subjects found during the excavations allowed scientists to nominate the hypothesis that in ancient times, it was possible even earlier than Maya, there was some very remarkable culture.

Sculptural monuments of Olmekov, found in the mid-50s of the 20th century when excavations in the Mexican cities of Tres-Sapotes, La Venta, Serro de Las Meshas and San Lorenzo (authentic Olmek names of these major centers of former Olmecon, unfortunately, Not survived) are gigantic heads. According to experts, they are distinguished by realistic and at the same time individual traits.

The majestity of proportions chosen by the master only confirms the high class and confident execution technique. Scientists struck the fact that neither of these Olmek cities, or rather, the places where cult rituals were conducted, there was no one stone. Therefore, the remains of the temples and palaces in them were not found. Most archaeologists came to the belief that Olmeki delivered basalt (solid breed of volcanic origin) for the manufacture of giant heads, large sarcophagus and altars, as well as stone stele from extremely remote items. Only some time later, the researchers found out that the building material was cut off by Olmekami in the vice plates weighing from 20 to 60 tons of the mass of the frozen volcano, which is known in our days called San Martin-Pahapan. The remoteness of it from the centers of Olmek cult, that is, from the venue of rituals, where items were found, is 125 km. It can be assumed what kind of work it costs representatives ancient civilization Deliver these blocks to places of worship by your deities. After all, none of the pre-aging Indian tribes had the slightest idea of \u200b\u200bthe carts and certainly did not know the major cattle. According to scientists, multi-torque blocks were transported on the rafts: first by sea, and then along the river Tonala. Most researchers concluded that these sculptures had a cult destination. Evidence is small cup-shaped deepening on the heads of statues, which, apparently, served as spacing for sacrificial blood.

The largest of the sculptures is found in La Venta. Sleep has a height of 2.5 m and weighs more than 30 tons. The monument depicts the head of the young man with a broad and as if flattened in the middle of the nose, large thick lips and almond-shaped eyes, which are covered with heavy centuries. On the head of the young man will wear a tightly adjacent helmet with headphones. Its upper part decorates a relief pattern, archaeologists immediately noted interesting fact: Around this sculpture and the like, it was not found during the excavations of any other sculptural fragments of the body. On this occasion, there is a solid belief of researchers in the fact that Olmek's bribes originally conceived the creation of a sculpture completely without torso. It has been established that the material for the monument served a huge basalt boulder. From it, a monument was made.

Interesting monuments of Olmek culture include Altari. They are decorated with reliefs of monoliths, which served, obviously, the platform for sacrifices. Of particular interest is the monumental altar, also discovered in La Venta. Sculpture is made of gray-green basalt. On the front side, the burning image of a male figure (about 1 m in height) appears from a deep niche. With a more detailed study of the monument, it can be found that this niche is nothing but the opened mouth of the jaguar. Attributes of clothing elements, headdress, decorations allow us to conclude that this is either the Supreme Priest, or the ruler. On a slightly stretched forward, the arms of the character rests the dead body of the child. Researchers and archaeologists believe that some solemn religious ceremony is captured on this altar. Most likely, it is associated with the cult of underground gods. The ministry required this cult in order to sacrifice children.

Another of the wonderful samples of the Olmek round sculpture is currently kept in one of the private collections of art monuments in Mexico City. This small basalt statue depicts sitting with undercrow and slightly tilted forward to the body of a person. In the circle of specialists it is believed that the ball is captured in the sculpture. In this work, the Olmeksky brewee managed to truthfully and vitally transfer the proportions of the body, its dynamics, concentration and attention on the face. Researchers are rightfully referring to this monument to one of the highest achievements of the entire ancient American sculpture.

Olmek sculptors are also known as the original masters of shallow plastics. During the excavation, several small figurines made from various mineral rocks of the stone were discovered: jade, serpentine, jadeite. A characteristic feature of these products is a disproportionate big head with a large mouth and thick lower and top lips resembling the mouth of a predatory beast. According to the researchers, these figures of some Olmek deity associated with the cult of jaguar. One of these statuettes depicting a jaguar-like being is stored in the State Hermitage. Researchers believe that Jaguar was the main theme of Olmek states and, of course, was the main character of a very developed cult. Most likely, representatives of this ancient civilization identified themselves with this insidious and strong beast.

The described monuments of Olmek sculpture give an idea that in this kind of art of Maya's predecessors were more primitive in the interpretation of topics. In general, Olmek wipers were not inferior in terms of Mayan sculptors, and in some cases (for example, in images of persons performed with great realism) even surpassed them.

May 21st, 2013

It is known that all the great civilizations of antiquity developed under conditions of warm climate, in the valleys of rivers whose annual spills increased soil fertility and created favorable opportunities for agriculture. So it was everywhere - in Mesopotamia, India, Egypt, China, but not in Northern Guatemala. Ancient Maya, challenging fate, built their white-stone cities in the impassable jungle.
For the 15th centuries to Columbus, previously Hindus and Arabs, Maya used in mathematics of the concept of zero, predicted solar and lunar eclipses, and Venus movement paths were calculated with a mistake of only 14 seconds per year. Maya reached the striking perfection in architecture, painting, sculpture. At the same time, the ancient builders did not know the metals, did not have the ideas about the wheel and pottery Circle. Maya, in fact, lived in the Stone Age.

The whole culture of the ancient people was created by the muscular power of man. Elegant temples, palaces and pyramids grew like mushrooms. So it lasted until the 15th century of our era. After a sudden catastrophe, all construction stopped, people left curses and cities were immersed in the green bay of tropical vegetation. By the time of the arrival of the conquistadors from the Golden Age of the Mayan civilization, only a misty legend remained in the memory of her descendants of the Indians. However, life in these places did not quite.

A 30 minutes drive from Tikal, the most significant monument of the ancient Maya on the territory of Guatemala, Lake Peten-Itsa is located. A funny story is connected with him. In 1525, the punitive expedition of Ernan Cortez passed through these places. Conquistadors were sent to Honduras to suppress the rebellion of the rebellious lieutenant of Cristobal de Olide, who refused to obey the Governor Cortes. Exhausted by campaign through the jungle, the governor did not conquer the Indians. Before moving further to Honduras, Konkistador asked the local Kanke's leader to look after his horse Morsillo, who hurt his leg, making his way through the Green Jungle Hell.

On the way back the conqueror promised to pick up a horse. However, it did not happen to do this. After the care of the Cortez, the leader placed his horse in the temple and began to feed meat, honoring the animal as God, for the Indians believed that the roar of the Spanish cannons comes from rusting horses. Horse Morsillo Meat did not eat and soon die. Running anger of Cortes, the leader ordered to make a statue of a horse in a natural value. He called Tyminchak's new god, or thunder tapir. The statue broke the monks of Franciscans who came here in 1618 to circulate Indians from a lake into Christianity. Lakers say that the debris of the horse God is still resting at the bottom of Lake Peten-Itsa.

But back to one of the 18th capitals of the ancient kingdom of Maya. The reproductors of the city ruins in the XIX century gave him from the words of local Indians the romantic name Tikal, which means "the place where the voices of spirits are heard." Not less than 10 thousand people lived here. The total area of \u200b\u200bthe complex is about 160 square meters. km.

What is explained by the unprecedented takeoff of the greatest of all of the pre-columbian civilizations of America? Many scientists connect this phenomenon with a developed agriculture system from Maya. In antiquity, the life of the population, especially farmers, was strictly regulated. The routine of all cases, including agricultural work, was provided for by their calendar up to a day. The priests constituted prescriptions for residents in accordance with the classes of gods in a particular period of time.

The ordinary Indians remained only to follow the example of their gods. Any routine disruption was regarded as blasphemy. The violator without special conversations put on the sacrificial altar. The most revered from the deities was the lord of the rain and wind Kashesh. He was depicted as a character, with a long hooked nose and curves. In her hands, he kept an ax, a torch and stick-digger - for the maintenance of lighted fire farming. Later, Kashev began to call Chuck. He was the Lord of the sixth of the 13 heavens of the Upper World.

Oddly enough, but the swampy jungle Guatemalas could feed 2-3 million people. Soil fertility after harvest is rapidly restored. In the 80s. With the help of aerospace filming, scientists found that the territory of the settlement of the Indians was covered with a huge network of channels, which were deposited by moisture of swampy soils. As a result, the wild jungle turned into flowering gardens. Maya from Guatemala led an active trade with Mexican tribes of the Indians who influenced the culture of residents of Central America. Some architectural structures of Tikal are on the buildings in Teotihuakan.

Under the stairs and floors of the temples, under the foundations of stone altars and stele still find caches in which the Indians hid expensive items for them: jade jewelry, vessels, sinks, objects from obsidian. In the temples, not only lush religious rites were carried out. Under the pyramidal basis of the cult facilities were the burial of the rulers and the most prominent members of society. The tombs, as a rule, were connected to the vaulted temple at the top of the special channel for the soul of the late ruler, psycheduka. The main element of the whole complex was the tomb under the floor of the temple, and not the temple. The temple itself served as a place to communicate priests with the spirit of the deceased ruler. It must be said that both simple mortals, following the example of the nobility, buried their dead under the floors of ordinary housing.

The indispensable attribute of the city-state was the presence of palace premises in it. Researchers have no consensus on the appointment of these buildings. Some believe that there were priest rooms here for the departure of religious cults, others consider these buildings as purely administrative buildings. Thirdly convinced that representatives of the ruling dynasty and their numerous suite lived in the stone chambers.

To the IX century of our era, the life of state cities in Northern Guatemala either ceases or comes down to a minimum. Builders stopped eating temples, steles and altars. Crowded markets frozen, luxury palaces empty. Cities remained intact, as if their inhabitants were going to return soon. But they did not return. Cities enveloped silence. The courtyards threw grass. According to some scientists, at least one million people died in the northern territories of Guatemala for just a hundred years. Many are associated with strong earthquakes, drought, even epidemics of fever and malaria. But such hypothesis do not withstand critics.

At one time, a version of social shocks was popular. On the excavations in Tikal, archaeologists were surprised that many stone sculptures were deliberately spoiled, although it was believed that in the entire 600-year history of Tikal, there was no conquerors of alien. This allowed scientists to conclude about the brewing in the kingdom of Maya something like a revolutionary situation that has grown into mass riots. When the success of the uprising became apparent, the rowers, as archaeologists suggest, thrown onto the stone sculptures, and at the same time they cut all the levels of royal education. But this version did not find its confirmation, as it is unlikely that several dozen major urban-states are empty only due to the disturbance of the bottom.

Recently, the researchers are still inclined to the idea that the Maja Forest is still reached. And the first here were theotiiuacans. Following them, Jungle Guatemala visited the bloodthirsty Mexican tribe Pipil. He was attributed to the laurels of the winners of warlike Maya-KICH. However, this version of the death of the Great Culture was also not indisputable, since Pipil appeared in Guatemala after the sunset of the Maja's golden century.

In the 90s. American scientists have found the connection between the cycles of the change of solar activity and the raising periods and the decline of civilizations. It turned out that the stagning activity of the Sun is changing after 3744 years. This number was known to astronomers Maya. It is curious that the next decline in solar activity coincides with the date of the end of the last era, the collapse of which predicted Maja's priests, that is, from December 23, 2012, modern researchers have established that the peak of the smallest solar activity coincided with the period of decline of Indian civilization. Reducing the activity of the Sun influenced the hormonal activity of Indiana, and therefore, on their fecundity.

As a result of this, the population of state cities began to decline rapidly, and child mortality reached unprecedented sizes in the entire history of the existence of state cities. Maya began to leave the north of Guatemala south, in the mountainous areas, where they come from, and came from.
Be that as it may, scientists continue to build guesses and hypotheses about the death of the once mighty kingdom. However, until today, none of the versions of researchers are immaculate.

Today, the ancient city of Tikal is an integral part of one of the National Parks of Guatemala, which are included in the Maya biosphere reserve. Tikal National Park, which occupies a significant part located in the north of the country of Peten, was established in 1979, but was opened only in 1990. The city itself covers an area of \u200b\u200b16 thousand square meters. The KM, on which about three thousand diverse structures was discovered.

The most famous of the Palace Buildings is the Palace of the "Grand Claw of Jaguar". The building was built in 360 N. e. The ruler whose name is translated as "Jaguar Claw". Apparently, this structure was a residence for the ruling dynasty ("Claw Jaguar" and his descendants). The palace was so sacred for the Indians and it is important that in the future, no one decided to rebuild him.
To the north, where on the legends of Maya was their pranodine, the souls of the dead were directed.
Therefore, to the north of the administrative ritual center, the stadiums were often located for playing the ball. In the tikal between the central acropol and the temple of the Giant Jaguar, archaeologists from centuries-old nanos cleared the playground to the ball, as it turned out - one of several arranged in the ancient city. The platform was a long and narrow alley framed from two sides with low stone structures.

Finding the nature of the game was made by archaeologists on the so-called Northern Acropolis. Here, various structures were erected within eleven centuries. As a result, a complex complex of buildings appeared, which distinguishes 12 temple buildings located at different levels, but at the heart of one artificial platform. The earliest buildings appeared in the third century. Later in the neighborhood there are many buildings of various purposes. Northern Acropolis is often compared with a puff pastry. True, he has a peculiar "filling": For 500 years, the rulers of the city were buried here. Before the Acropolis along the edge of the area, a variety of stele resembles tombstones.

As a result of the excavation in the tick, it was possible to detect seven more administrative and ritual complexes (in the scientific literature they are denoted by Latin letters N, O, P, R, Q, etc.), which are squares with the temples-pyramids standing opposite each other, But they are all significantly less than the complex around a large area. Erected in the VIII century. Small complexes are distinguished by one curious feature. All of them were built with intervals of 20 years, i.e. The construction of each group of structures was the end of Katuna - a special 20-year period in Maya's life. Maya used a twenty calculation system (possibly based on the number of fingers on hand and legs). Apparently, each new dynasty has erected its own complex to worship in it from the deified ancestors, from which the authorities moved to the relevant rulers.

Among the set of pyramids, specialists allocate, in addition to the temple of the Gigan jaguar and the temple of the masks, the sanctuary of the "Lost World" complex, the pyramid IV with the temple of the two-headed snake and the "Temple of the inscriptions" (Temple VI). The complex "Lost World" is one of the most ancient in the tickle. His pyramid, more precisely, the first version of the pyramid, later completed, was erected in the VII century. The height of the structure is 32 m, and the length of the base is 80 m. Four stairs lead to the top of the pyramid.

Presumably, the construction served for astronomical observations. Pyramid IV, also known as the Temple of a two-headed snake - the highest construction of Tikal (64 m). The temple was built in the middle of the VIII century near the so-called bat palace. "Temple of the inscriptions" attracts attention to the fact that traces of the inscription made in antiquity are preserved on its crest.

In addition, the ruins of the so-called "small palaces" are found in the tikal - one-story houses with plastered and elegantly decorated rooms, and many relatively unbelievable simple houses in which ordinary citizens lived. Like many other Mayan architectural facilities, the houses were built on the platform, it is possible to protect against flooding and floods in the rainy season.

On the interior walls of the buildings, on door jambs, graffiti - drawings, battles or less - drawn black paint are often found on the pearfields and beams of overlaps. Many of them are made unprofessional, although sometimes a master's hand is guessing. According to the researchers, the Tikal, depicted on graffiti, accurately corresponds real city The time of his highest bloom. Based on the drawings, you can talk a lot about the social organization, about holidays and rituals, about the deities that the townspeople were honored. The most "popular" scenes of images served rites dedicated to the celebration of the New Year or related to the confirmation of the rule of the ruler, a ritual game of the ball, sacrifices and dances.

The largest of the cities of Decolumbovy America - Teotihuacan - was located on the central plateau 40 km from Mexico City. The name of the city is translated as "Motherland of the Gods". It was believed that it was here that the sun and the moon were born. Theotioacan became a benchmark for other Mayan and Aztec cities. It is still unknown who built this city, most likely, Aztec. Also unclear, by whom and why in the 7th century our era Theotioacan was destroyed and burned. Located on an area of \u200b\u200b21 square meters. km, with a population of about 100,000 inhabitants, the city had a very rigid regular layout, oriented on the sides of the world. The streets in the city were direct like an arrow, and crossed at a right angle, for which it was necessary to even change the riverbed using the bypass canal. The central axis of the city was an absolutely straight street width of 40 meters and a length of more than 2 km, which was called the "Road of the Dead". On her parties were numerous temples and palaces.

The most important temples of Teotihuacan are the pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon. Sun pyramid was once the most important temple of the city. Its height initially accounted for 65 meters. This is a five-speed pyramid with a base of 667 x 685 meters, the total amount of about 1 million cubic meters of land, stones and raw bricks. Unlike other Pyramids of Central America, it was built very quickly. At the very top of the pyramid was a small temple, which, like the Greeks, was considered the housing of the Divine. A cool staircase was led to him, which rose ritual processions to make a root of bloody human sacrifice. And the bottom of the procession looked at a huge crowd. At the northern end of the "Road of the Dead" there was a six-speed pyramid of the moon. She was a little lower than the pyramid of the sun. Its height accounted for 46 meters, the top also walked the temple to which wide stairs for the processions were conducted. Ancient Aztecs gave a great ritual meaning to the process of climbing the pyramid. Steps to the temple were considered steps to the sky. In the center of the city there was a whole complex of temple buildings known to us already forms of the stepped pyramid with the famous temple - the pyramid of Ketzalcoatlia.

Decorated with numerous embossed images of God - a feathered snake with sparkling eyes from Obsidian, the pyramid produces a cracked impression even on a modern man, despite its relatively small height - only about 21 meters. Previously, the temple, as probably the rest of the temples, was plastered and painted with bright colors. great city Aztec died in the 7th century under the blows of unknown invaders, was completely looted and burned. The capital of another Indian tribe - Toltecs (perhaps they were also destroyed by Teotihuanan) - was the city of Tula. Toltecov owned mexico from 10 to 12th century, after which their civilization also died. The main deity in Tula was Cetzalcoatl. The image of this feathered snake - the Symbol of the Morning Star, who once left Mexico, is found in the buildings of Tula constantly: he wures the columns, gloomily and strictly looks at us with reliefs. In Tula, a 40-meter wall of the serpent was preserved, on which terrible snakes are depicted, swallowing human skeletons. The main temple of the city is dedicated to the main temple of the city, on the upper stage of which the stone giggles stand - warriors with the sign of the pennate snake on his chest, in the heads of feathers, once frozen under the severity of the church overlapping. Their height is 4.6 meters, and they are the symbolic image of Cetzalcoatl in the image of the morning star. The gloomy impression is born from other such tailored images on the reliefs of various buildings Tula. At the foot of the temple decent attention is also the "Column Hall" - the indoor room for public assemblies. And, of course, in Tula there were platforms for a rubber ball, which was part of the Toltec religious ritual.

Similar buildings can be found in another center of the Toltec - the city of Chichen Itza, which up to 10th century was one of the most important Central Centers of the Mayan culture, and then captured Toltec. The most famous building of Chichen-Iza is a pyramid dedicated to Cukulkan, also known as a large temple or "Castillo". On the edges of this nine-speed pyramid, symbolizing the seasons, there are huge steep stairs, numbering 91 steps each. Stairs stairs symbolize the calendar: seasons, months and days. The stairs are very accurately oriented on the sides of the world, which was of particular importance in the days of astronomical holidays. In the days of the spring and autumnal equinox, the rays of the Sun lightly light the stone reliefs of the temple, which seems to be a feather snake come to life, begins to shock and crawl out of his shelter. In Chichen Ice, there was also a playground for playing the ball, the largest in all Mexico. Its dimensions are 83 x 27 meters. On both sides, she closed the walls, and also with two - temples. It is possible that the goal of the game was to get the ball into the stone ring at the top of the wall. The ball game was not just a sports competition. Many archaeological discoveries indicate that it was clearly related to human sacrifices. On the walls of the wall, the defective people are embedded. There are 3 platforms around the platform around the platform: the platform "Venus" (Cetzalcoatlia) with the tomb of Chuck-Moole, the Eagle and Jaguar platform with the jaguar temple, as well as the skull platform. The huge statues of Chak-Moole are depicting it with a semi-carrying, with a dish for sacrifices on the stomach. On the skull platform, the stakes were installed, which rushed the swollen heads of the victims.

Sculpture

Maya knew and applied to a greater or lesser extent all sculptural techniques: threads, bas-relief and burner, round and simulated volume. For the manufacture of small items, obsidian, flint, nephritis, and other solid or fine-grained stones, as well as sink and bone were used.

The sculpture could decorate the details of the buildings (panels, plates, shoals, columns), could be an element that is functionally related to the construction (altari, sanctuary, thrones), or be part of such architectural complexes as area, platforms and temples.

The sculpture should have embodied themes that help the strengthening of the existing system: the life of the deities who created this system and followed its proper functioning, and the power of those who were considered representatives of these deities on Earth. Engaged in recreation ruling class In general, the ancient sculptors usually did not strive to individualize those depicted. However, many characters have a portrait similarity with really existing rulers and priests. As for ordinary people, slaves and prisoners, then the poverty and simplicity of their clothing, as well as the posture, led by them with a sculptor, indicate their low position.

Copan and Kirigua schools sought to create a bulk sculpture. The bizarre sculptures and Kiri-Gua are very peculiar to the bizarre sculptures, which are usually placed before steles outdoors. They depict some mythological monsters. One such monster from Kirigua in uncovered grazing is a sitting human figure.

Yashchilan's sculptural school was in many ways the opposite of the Ialank school. Items here did not pay special attention. The topics of reliefs are diverse: scenes of triumph, duel, deities phenomena, etc. Many Yashchilan reliefs seem to be "translations" from a tree on a stone.

The high perfection of Maya has reached in small plastic - terracotta figuces depicting deities and people in jade products. These images are direct veracity, the bold individualization of the images, the softness and vitality of modeling often superior monuments of large plastics.

Painting

Painting with her wealth of color scheme and the ability to portray scenes with numerous participants even more than the sculpture allows us to see the life of the Mayan people and penetrate it deeper. She captured the scene from the life of Maya as it were in motion: Some - as animal tapes, others - like real color documentaries.

Until now, it was not possible to accurately determine which technique was used for wall painting: Lie fresco on a layer of still wet plaster or temperatures. Perhaps both methods were used. When analyzing some wall paintings, you can make sure that at first any light paint outlined contours of figures and the main inner lines; Then various colors were superimposed, each on a certain area. Some parts were painted darker, others are lighter, but, apparently, the differences in the tonality did not seek to get a three-dimensional effect. It is also not noticeable attempts to submit to perspective in those scenes that have several plans. The interest of the artist is concentrated on the line, and really drawing reveals great mastery of painter.

Very few wall murals were resistant to bad weather and inexorably time, and only some of them managed to find and copy. The most significant discovery was in Bonampack.

Bonampac. In the impassable forests of the state of Chiapas in 1946, the temple was found, the inner premises of which are painted with frescoes. He was not the only one. The temple was adjacent to a dozen of the cult facilities that made up the architectural complex with him - typical of the sacred cities of the ancient Maya of the classical period. He was named Bonampak that translated from Maya means "walls with painting." Murals covering the walls of the three-room temple located on the hill belong to the 2nd half of the 8th century. n. e. They show that the classical period was not the epoch of the world; The main plot of them is some kind of large battle, in memory of which this temple was subsequently delivered. Some of the plots depict the sacrifice of prisoners, one of which extends to the ruler of the hand, praying for mercy. On the walls of another - dancing warriors in rich outfits and heads of multicolored birds celebrate victory. From the paintings of Bonampak, it became known about the life of the Indians, their clothes, weapons. Among the many small and large sacred cities of Maya did not find other works of wall painting, which in their skills would be approaching them. The artist who led the creation of these paintings was undoubtedly a big master. He freely and confidently disposes of a rich range of paints and their peculiar combinations. Most of the figures are written in almost a variety.

For the painting of the walls, paints were used, the composition of which still remains unknown. They are extremely stable and cannot be any acids. It has been established that individual paints have vegetable origin, others made from mollusks, small insects living on some types of cacti.

"Chilam Balam". Drawings from the ancient manuscript Maya "Chilam Balam" are not inferior on the artistic advantages of the fresco painting of temples. They give a rich material to study the culture of the ancient Maya. Some sections of manuscripts go back to very early times and reflect the traditions that have already disappeared into the classical period. In general, manuscripts are a kind of encyclopedia, covering all parties to the life of the Indians.

With the help of these manuscripts, priests focused in rituals of numerous holidays. The manuscript is illustrated by graphic patterns that give explanations to the text. Four drawing background colors are apparently related to the four rodes of the parties of the world. Among the plots of drawings - God with arms raised (Izamna) holds a frame with a cloth and a big needle with a thread. God sitting holds in his hand a branch with snail, blue background. God with a dog's head, sitting, holding a stem with snail, red background. God sits from his head of a grid, raising his hand with his hand up, and the like.

Paper for books were made from Luba Fikus, wrote with a hair brushes with various paints. The dead priests were buried with their manuscripts. The manuscripts themselves were long stripes of paper folded. After conquesting the territories of Maya, the Spaniards the ancient letter was completely lost.