What are the iconic structures from huge. Number of architecture

Chapter 1. Construction and architecture of the era of the Upper Paleolithic, Neolithic and the beginning of the Bronze Age

Already at the dawn of human history in 50-70 thousand to n. e. People stood very simple, but vital tasks: where and how to hide from bad weather or from what uncomplicated healthy materials to create protective booms from wild animals. In that epoch, which scientists called paleolitisThis was the most pressing work after the preparation of food. Millennium will pass, the person will begin to perceive the world around him otherwise. However, the problems of living arrangement will always be relevant. Their decision will take over the wonderful sphere of human activity called "Architecture" (from Greek. "Architecton" - Chief Builder). The main "concern" of architecture will remain the organization of human habitat in all its diverse forms.

In the era of Paleolithic, up to 12-10 thousand BC. e., a person was formed as a reasonable creature capable of communicating through speech. People united into generic communities (up to 100 people) under the primacy of women, we created tools of labor and with their help mined food and equipped their lives. This era of the generic system is called matriarchay and is characterized by initial - assigning - forms of management, such as gathering berries, roots, fungi and, of course, hunting and fisheries. The tools of labor were still very primitive and rude. They were made exclusively of solid wood or stone. Existence and survival depended mainly from natural factors, and the community of people moved through the habitat depending on the living conditions. The person was not cowned by farming, neither more tamed animals. Therefore, the dwelling is chosen for a short time - it was either a cave or a dilated pit, or a slash. At the beginning of this period, people often created temporary parking with a hearth in the center, which fell by specially assembled large stones or branched animal horns. It happened that people simply occupied the cave in which it was easier to hide from bad weather and wild animals. In the future, the situation has changed significantly.

The greatest interest is the era upper Paleolithic, covering the period from 40-30 thousand BC. e. up to 12-10 thousand BC e.

The most ancient remains of the dwellings of this era opened de Lumley on the French Riviera near Nice. Parking is called the Amate Terra, and not far from it, in the cave of the grotto Du Lazaret, a special type of housing was discovered. Inside a large cave discovered the remains of a hut (Fig. 1.1). The finding of the find showed that the area of \u200b\u200bthe cave was not fully understood. Hands of stones held vertical racks. The horizontal beams of the overlap with one end were laid on these racks with a water-shaped upper branching, and the other relied on the protrusion in the wall of the cave. The design of the hut was not adjacent to the wall to the wall, which rested it from the water cave seeping along the walls. The core was covered with animal skins, which were well kept warm and protected people from the constantly dripping water. So inside the cave originated the first "rooms" separating the residential part of the rest of the space. Moreover, the space of the hut itself also dismeteed to independent compartments. Inside the hut is highlighted a small entrance part - senior or vestibule, and a residential premises are actually a partition from the skins. The hearth was located in a cave outside the hut. Thus, there is a nucleation of the first functional separation of residential space, and the designs of the simplest supports and beams give primary ideas about the shoe and beam system which will be developed and reworked subsequently. This constructive system exists as one of the fundamental in construction and to this day.

Fig. 1.1. Reconstruction of the indoor room of the hut in the grotto du Lazaret (by luming)

Weather conditions forced to use such dwellings in winter, in the summer, people left them, going into search of new territories for hunting and fisheries.

Depending on climatic conditions, it changed both the form of dwellings and the material of the structure. In 1950, B. Klima opened the remains of separate huts in Czechoslovakia in Czechoslovakia. In one of them, to create an even sex, the ancient builders had to be left asleep at 80 cm into the slope of the hill, and the right lift with the help of artificially created embankments from stones. We have the first attempts to vertical planning - the future of the basic construction section. A hut with a hearth in the center has an oval shape. Studies have shown that its design consisted of a support for maintaining the coating. Supports were located only on the one hand. The roof was laid on the pillars, and the other side rested into the ground, forming an inclined roof. In the hut found a lot of clay with the ledging traces. Archaeologists have proven: it was a workshop of primitive sculptor, which makes this find especially valuable (Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2. Reconstruction of circular huts in Dolni Westonice, General view

On the territory of modern Ukraine and Siberia, residential designs with the use of horns, tesnes and animal custodies were widely used. The foundation in such dwellings was made up of long bones and mammoth skulls. The entrance from two sides was also marked with mammoth skulls, inverted alveoli (nose) upwards. They inserted long tails and on top were combined with a third bone (Fig. 1.3). Thus, the archport arch was created, which served as the main strength structure (Fig. 1.4). The dome consisted of deer horns. A circular slaughterhouse of Malta's parking in Siberia in the Angara Pool, Open M. I. Gerasimov and they also studied and reconstructed, represents such an example (Fig. 1.5, incl. Fig. 1). The designs of the main island of the Shalash are made in such dwellings from wooden stories. There were a lot of forest in Siberia, and primitive labor tools gave the opportunity to roughly process it.

Than the south of the habitat of a primitive person was, the easier it was the designs of the dwellings. They served rather canopies saving from sunlight than false deposits, fencing from bad weather (Fig. 1.6-1.9).

In order to better protect against wild animals, the settlement was also built on piles. Such buildings were often constructed over water (Fig. 1.10).

Fig. 1.3. Mezino dwelling (Ukraine). For greater clarity in the vertically supplied jaws of the Mammoth were birovni (by Schovkoplyas)

Fig. 1.4. Reconstruction of late Paleolithic dwellings (Mesin, Ukraine)

Fig. 1.5. Reconstruction of the chaolase circular housing (Malta, Russia)

In conclusion, it can be said that the man of the paleolithic era, owning rude instruments of labor, learned to organize his habitat in order to meet primary safety and warmth needs in the winter season, and in the south in order to protect against hot sunlight. He took the first attempts to the functional organization of space, learned to choose the building material and with the help of stone structures, bones and animal skins, wood to build enough durable housing, applying even retaining walls or piles and, if necessary, performing measures to prepare and level the platform for future construction.

Epoch neolithic (IX - the middle of the VI thousand to n. Er) radically changed the vital conditions. The widespread warming of the climate forced many animals to move to more northern areas, and the hunt could no longer feed the human communities. People gradually moved to the development of steppe territories under farming and taking animals in order to obtain milk and wool, as well as to use animals as a major force. Against the background of the production of material goods, the excessive product has occurred as a result of successful management in individual hands or families. There was a period of separation of the generic community on family clans, which in turn led to substantial changes in the housing planning.

The dwelling of the farmer should have become the most stationary, and the dwelling of the nomad of the cattle was acquired by the quality of teams of lightweight structures.

Fig. 1.6. Spherical dwelling of South African Bushmen. Shalash is composed of branches (according to B. Allchina)

Fig. 1.7. Light hut from Pandan Leaf (North Australia)

Fig. 1.8. Easy Shalash Corn Eucalyptus (Central Australia)

Fig. 1.9. Osters of a spherical hut Aboriginal Central Australia

Fig. 1.10. Reconstruction of primitive pile settlement

Fig. 1.11. Planning a long multiplicate dwelling, a number of foci ruled in the center (bone IV)

In 1937, the archaeologists of P. P. Efimenko and A. N. Rogachev near the village of Kostenka in Ukraine were excavated by the most interesting parking with spacious elongated dwellings. The size of the largest reached 33.5 x 5.5 m. The dwelling was blown out by 40 cm and was located with his long axis along the slope, it reduced the danger of its flooding with springtime waters. A large number of foci was placed on the longitudinal axis of the structure, which indicates the presence of a duplex roof, the highest place of which is the middle line (Fig. 1.11, 1.12). Such a dwelling was most likely divided into families living in it, which corresponds to the number of foci. In later construction, it was possible to differentiate the overall scope design of the coating on a separate roof and the wall, apply frame solutions. The latter were simple enough, although they can be found in the countryside today. We are talking about structures from Prames and Plumenica of flexible branches of trees. They could serve as a fence, and if they were deceived by clay and dried, became reliable walls of houses. Neolith VII - VI thousand BC e. Presents the first raw bricks and stone foundations. The architecture used the coloring of floors and walls by white or red okhra.

Fig. 1.12. Reconstruction of two long residential facilities (bonefire IV, Alexandrovka) (Efimenko)

However, a person was not limited to solving purely utilitarian tasks. Destructive natural phenomena led him to the thrill. There was a need to submit the forces of nature in the images of the deities and try to delve them. Thus, the first megalithic structures dedicated to the deities, funeral rites, for death was beyond understanding, or finally just bright memorable events. Megalithic structures - buildings from stone blocks or vertical stones - are affected by their sizes. It is difficult to even imagine how they could be created. Megalithic facilities include:

– mengira -stone pillars with a height of 1 m or more (Fig. 1.13), which can be individually or groups, noting the place of parking or the place of burial of totem ancestors;

– dolmen -table-shaped combinations of large stone blocks (incl., Fig. 2), which are likely to represent the remnants of terrestrial burial structures;

– cromlechi -complex structures that have a rounded shape and composed of roughly dyed stone blocks that support the plane stone plates overlapping them.

Mengira and Dolmen appeared during Neolithic and gained widespread in the next era of the bronze century. Especially a large number of mengirov is located in Europe, namely in French Brittany. The word "Mengir" of Celtic origin and consisted only in the XIX century. In France, there are about 6,000 mengirov. The largest height of 20.5 m. It is above the columns of the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow (14 m) and even for a modern person looks huge. In ancient people, such Mengir had a stunning effect. Especially impressed by the courage of the idea and the complexity of execution. Mengirs and smaller - at 11, 10 and even 1 m. Absolutely to say exactly what these huge stone poles were dedicated, it is impossible. However, sometimes they were buried by people, apparently, noble or outstanding community members. The installation of mengirov is associated with the collapse of the generic system. The first stones were small and belonged to the period when the generic system was in the desired development. The further the processes of its decomposition were, the higher the mengir became. Obviously, there was a need to rally around the symbol of his unity, because Mengir was put on the grave, most likely the elder of the genus. The authorities were inherited by the living elder.

To create Mengir, they first found a stone, then treated with the stone weapons of solid rocks, rolled into the desired place and finally translated into a vertical position. Previously, the stones looked rudely processed, today they have a smooth surface due to atmospheric influences. From the place of his find to the place of installation, the stone rolled in a horizontal position, making tremendous efforts of a large number of people. To turn it into a vertical position, the pit was digging at the chosen place, one end of the stone with the help of logs (the analogue of the first lever) was raised. Under this end created a mound. When the stone slipped into the pit, his base was falling asleep, so that he stood firmly. Such a development of events seems to be sufficiently likely, but it is only a hypothesis.

The value of the first monument, which carries not so much practical as ideological-artistic meaning is great. The person chooses the stone of the necessary cigar shape, processes it and, finally, turns into a vertical position, making a landmark phenomenon. You can see some image of the vertical, which is the main distinguishing feature of an open person.

The dimensions of Mengira pointed out that it was resting to an important, outstanding person. At the same time, Mengir was a composite milestone, a spatial axis, which was steaming over the surrounding terrain, since Mengir was usually installed on an elevation. His foot is chaotic accommodated residential buildings. In contrast, the briefness of their building materials made from a durable stone Grand Mengir looked like a symbol of eternity, which is broken by everyday life. So, sequentially choosing and turning the stone in ancient monumentBy looking for a spatially significant location for him, the person first went on the path of artistic creativity, along the way to create an architectural and art composition.

The second type of megalithic structure of the Stone Age - Dolmen. Archaeologists have proven that Dolmen were tombs, and the privileged part of the genus. The main purpose of the construction of these structures was to create for the deceased eternal housing. Dolmen was formed from Mengirov. A group of mengirov was raised near and covered first with one slab (Fig. 1.14), and then two and even three. The supports shifted, and a closed inner space was created (see incl., Fig. 2). At the top left the hole "for the soul". Through it, according to the ideas of primitive people, the soul of the deceased was reported to the outside world. Archaeologists were excavated by one dolmen, in which the entrance could close only from the inside. It brings to the idea that initially Dolmen could be "palaces" for nobility. The hole for removing smoke from the dwelling was analogue for the hole "for the soul". Subsequently, the Dolmen was covered with the earth, and large mounds were formed on them. In some cases, the inlets were conducted in the mounds (Fig. 1.15), in others - the Kurgan fell completely completely. Just like Mengira, Dolmen were treated very roughly. And if Mengir was a monument, then Dolmen became the first monumental building.

Bronze Century dated to the beginning of IV - I thousand BC. e. This period is characterized by the public division of labor on agriculture and cattle breeding. Agriculture has spread in the forest-steppe territories in the zone of moderate climate, and cattle breeding was supplanted into the steppes and semi-deserts. In public life, the matriarchy is replaced by Patriarchate. Changes in social relations lead to the formation of the first states: Egypt in the Nile Valley, Mesopotamia states in the Tiger Valley and Euphrates, as well as India and China. Bronze tools in the root changed the construction technologies, and social relations are the principles of the formation of the dwelling. The construction of cities with their fortifications begins. How the architecture and construction of these states in the era of the Bronze Age developed, speech will go In the second chapter.

Fig. 1.13. Menhir

Fig. 1.14. Dolmen (Brittany, France)

Fig. 1.15. Dolmen (Brittany, France)

Megalithic structures continued to be erected during the Bronze Age. Especially they were common, as already mentioned, in Europe. Here, the formation of states constrained more severe climatic conditions. The most large megalithic structure of the edges - Stonehenge (England) - has 90 m in diameter and consists of 125 stone blocks weighing up to 25 tons (incl., Fig. 3). And the mountains from where these stones were delivered, are 280 km from Stonehenge. Cromleh dates back to the beginning of the II thousand BC. e.

Comparatively the same type of character of these ancient facilities, about the same time of their appearance in Europe, their huge amount and incredibly widespread existence indicate the existence of the same type of beliefs that have existed among various nations who have erected these gigantic monuments everywhere from Ireland to Burma and Korea, from Scandinavia to Madagascar. Only in France there are about four thousand. In favor of the hypothesis about a certain unknown single cultural tradition, the fact that the spread is not only the idea of \u200b\u200bsuch structures, but also related some characters and decorative elements, including solar signs.

Fig. 1.16. Kurgan Argen. Plan of revealed burial cells (Tuva, Russia)

On the possibility of communication megalithic facilities The cult of the Sun indicates that such structures like Stonehenge are focused on their main axis to the sunrise point on the day of summer solstice. There are assumptions that croms could be used as the first astronomical observatory.

Elements of Cromleha in Stonecheng are stone parallelepipeds of obstacles, on which stone beams are lying. All of them, thanks to the metal tools of the Bronze Age, the days are significantly better than boulders in the dolmens of the neolith period. All elements are almost the right form. In this grand construction, a very important point was manifested for the first time in the formation of architecture. Cromleha architecture for the first time in history received sPECIAL SOLUTION WITH THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE WALL BOAL SYSTEM.

The allocation of families and individual personalities on the property indication, the separation of society is reflected not only in everyday life, but also in the burial of people. Mogilniks for nobility and rich community members were often very large. For example, in Siberia, in Tuva, the "royal mounds" are preserved, which have 120 m in diameter and occupy a huge area (Fig. 1.16). The form of such Kurgans could be either round or trapezoidal. Cameras Kurgan in Tuva radially depart from the center. The main design is made of logged cells floodied by 3-4 m butte. Inside the burial grounds, weapons were placed, horses, rich utensils, decorations and even concubines. Special place Among the ancient megalithic structures are the sanctuary. These are later religious facilities. An example is the sanctuary on the islands of the Maltese archipelago (Malta, Gozo and Camino). The cultural existing people left the descendants of 34 prehistoric settlements, most of which are represented by the remains of the temples. The most ancient belongs to the 5200th Hg. BC e. The sanctuary in Gganty on about. The Gozo consists of two temples, which are associated multiple ADSID, and refers to the 3600th GH. BC e. (Fig. 1.17).

In this construction, it is clearly seen how the internal space is distributed depending on the functional requirements. The central entrance leads to the main altar. The temple space is divided by five absides. The plan shows two altar, the base of the sacred stone and the sacred triangle. In the left second Ambise there is an altar placed in three niches (incl., Fig. 4). The principle of the design of altar niche is the same as in Cromroych Stonehenge (racks for which plates are laid), only their dimensions are less. But the upper plates are significantly driven by stones. However, the thickness of the plates and their span dimensions are correlated in such a way that they have a large margin of strength, which allowed them to stand millennium. The cyclopic dimensions of the stones are surprised, of which the walls of the sanctuary are stacked, which remains a mystery even for modern researchers (incl., Fig. 5).

Fig. 1.17. Plan of complex temples (Gantia, Malta): 1 - entrance; 2 – stone cleansing; 3 – Bowl for sacrificial wine; 4 – altar; 5 - stone with ritual images; 6 – bowl oracles; 7 - a sacred triangle; 8 – Stone pedestal; 9 – Altar in niche; 10 – Chief altar

So, we traced how the oldest architecture developed and improved the construction thought of a primitive person, how he walked from the simplest solutions of a utilitarian nature to decisions related to the high complexity of the structures and the vivid expressiveness of megalithic structures reflecting his spiritual culture.

In the ancient world there were no skyscrapers, but the high structures were. Some of them were built to perpetuate the glory of the ruler, about the appointment of other scientists still argue.

"Puzzled Hill"

Height:up to 9 meters

Construction time: 9,000 years BC

A place: 15 kilometers northeast of the city of Urf (Shanliurfa), Turkey

"Goebekley-Tepe" - so the name of this place in Turkish sounds. The oldest and unique temple for its time, the construction of which began in the middle stone age. About twenty round-shaped structures, stone benches, sculptures of boars and foxes, columns height from 3 to 9 meters. After a thousand years, he was deliberately filled with sand. Huge heavy blocks were under the power to build an already organized society.

Jericho Tower

Height:8 M.

Construction time:8000 years BC

A place: Jericho, Palestine

Huge tower for his time in the Jericho Wall. Jericho - the most ancient city on Earth. It was continuously populated by almost 10 millennia BC. e. Although the earliest settlement was rather a big village. The purpose of the tower is not entirely clear. She could be used to intimidate and be the first castle in history.

The Pyramid of Cheops

Height: 146 M.

Construction time: from 2540 BC. Until 2850 BC. According to different estimates

A place: El Giza, Egypt

Hoeop's pyramid (the full name of Pharaoh - Khnum Houfu) is the only preserved from the "seven miracles of the world." Its full name is Ahet-Hufu (Horizon Hofu). It was built on a hill and lined with white limestone shining in the sun peach color. The vertex was crowned gilded stone - pyramidion. The entrance was embossed a large granite slab, which was not able to move to the Baghdad Caliph Abdullah al-Mamoun, who had done a new entrance, which was opened in the pyramid and today.

Nurag Su-Naurakshi

Height: About 20 m.

Construction time: XVII century BC

A place: Commune Baruni, Oh. Sardinia, Italy.

Nuragi is the Tower-Megalites, built on the island of Sardinia, built in the II millennium BC. e. Their number throughout the island reached 20,000. The towers could serve to review the surroundings, defense and control over the trade routes. At this time, Sardinia, according to antique legends, could settle the tribes of korors, Iolaas and Balars. Which of these tribes built the towers is unknown. The builders could be "nations of the sea", more than once attacked the Egyptian kingdom.

The largest known Nurag - Su-Naurakshi, whose height could reach 20 meters. The construction did not have a foundation and kept only due to the mass of stones at the base. Next to him was located a fortified settlement - about 50 round in terms of huts, which were a single complex.

Babylonian zikkurat ETEMENANKA

Height: 91 M.

Construction time: XVIII BC, reconstruction in the VII century BC

A place: Painting of the city of El Hill, Iraq

Translated from Sumerovsky, ETEMENANK - "House of the base of the sky and the Earth" or "House, where heaven agree with the earth." It is this zigkurat most often associated with the legend about Babylonian tower. He existed already in the XVIII century BC. During the Board of Hammurapi, however, after this, the Temple tower was rebuilt several times after the destruction.

The last reconstruction made a tower with one of the highest and grand structures of the ancient world. Zikcurate consisted of 7 tiers, the last of which was located the temple. The construction was launched by Ardachesh at Queen Asarhadon, and Zikkurat was completed with Navudokosor II, after 100 years.

Galicarnas mausoleum

Height: 46 M.

Construction time: 359-353 BC. e.

A place: Bodrum, Turkey

The first "mausoleum" and "miracle of the world". Named by the name of the Karia Tsar Malsol. In honor of him built this gravestone monument to his wife Artemisia III Kariaskaya. The mausoleum was married about 330 statues, and he himself had a form of almost the right square, which was atypically for Greek architecture. Street and a half thousand years and was destroyed during the earthquake.

The Colossus of Rhodes

Height: 36 M.

Construction time: 292 - 280 years BC. e.

A place: Rhodes, Greece

Rhodes in antiquity was a large and rich city. Therefore, it could afford to live in the literal sense "on a wide leg." A huge statue of Helios, only the thumb could only grab only a few, was built by the ancient Greek architect Hares. The lack of money allocated for the construction forced him to fit into big debts, and, rooted, he committed suicide.

The statue took 500 talents of bronze and 300 talents of iron (more than 20 tons). Colossus stood just 65 years. After the earthquake, the clay statue fell by iron and bronze, the clay statue fell, and in reversible layer lay for about a thousand years, until it was sold to the Arabs.

Farosky Mayak

Height: 135 M.

Construction time: III century BC e.

A place: Alexandria, Egypt

Alexandrian lighthouse in just 5 years was built by Satrut Book on the island of Faros near Alexandria. It consisted of three marble towers: rectangular, octagonal and cylindrical. After its structure, at the first Ptolemies, Egypt was truly the country of giant buildings. Light from the lighthouse was visible at a distance of more than 50 kilometers. I survived two earthquakes in the VII and XIV century, after which it was finally destroyed. On the residues of Lighthouse, the Mamluk Sultan erected the fortress in his honor.

Coliseum

Height: 50 M.

Construction time: 80 yn. e.

A place: Rome, Italy

The Colosseum comes from the Latin word colosseus. - "huge". According to one of the versions, the name arose as a tribute to the memory of Nero's colossos located on this place - a huge (37 m) statue, the wedding complex of the Golden House - the Palace of the Emperor. Vespasian decided to get rid of the old cult and strengthen his. About 100,000 prisoners reduced in Rome participated in grandiose construction. Because of the earthquake in the XIV century, his southern part collapsed, after which the Colosseum became a source of building materials for other structures of Rome.

Stupa Kanishka

Height: from 128 to 168 m in different estimates

Construction time: II century AD

A place: near the city of Peshawar, Pakistan

The Kushan kingdom, founded by natives from China - Eastern Sarmatians (Yuezhs), became the "golden mid" of the ancient world and in direct (by wealth) and in a figurative sense. It received the spread of Greek Buddhism, rich in the Elden Religion Hellenistic Culture.

According to the description of Chinese travelers, built in honor of the Kushan Tsar Stupa exceeded the height of 400 chi (128 m), the gold and silver umbrellas were located at the top, and inside the relics of the Buddha. Data in size differ, but the stupa could be equal to or exceeding the heavenly pyramid. Many Buddhist legends and predictions are connected with the stage. It was destroyed by Muslim conquerors in the Middle Ages and so far not survived.

Location: Cholula de Rivadabia, Mexico

The highest construction of ancient America and the largest in the volume of the pyramid of the world. Built in ancient Teotyukan. The temple dedicated to God Ketzalcoatula was built during the 12th centuries of the Doacettec culture, until he became the largest religious center. Today it is a fourfold overgrown hill, a small part of which is recreated in the initial appearance.

60 kilometers southeast of the famous Dyatlov Pass Sverdlovsk explorer Valentin Degterov discovered a giant monument of the Stone Age era. The length of the neolithic geoglyph is about 10 kilometers, the width is approximately 5 kilometers. Review them helped pictures made from space.

"Dozens of drawings are knocked out in the ground, among the taiga. They have no relation to geology or logging, they explained to the Degter. - Ancient artists portrayed something that you can now interpret bico. However, they resemble what is like a comet or meteorite. "

Also, images cause associations with a huge bird, and between the two mountains, the ancient builders have placed the "gate" that can symbolize some transition.

Video: Valentin Degter

"However, I do not affirm anything. We will never learn that it was recorded on these drawings made by the hands of the ancient people, who had long been going to the story, "the researcher believes. "However, this now proves that the territory around Dyatlov's pass was indeed sacred for Mansi, inhabiting these places. And it became the sacred long before the first resident appeared there. So there is something mystical in it. "

Photo: Valentin Degter

Also, the degtero leads the coordinates of the find: 61.588355 °, 60.753612 °; 61.571104 °, 60.753665 °; 61.554000 °, 60.742642 °; 61.547156 °, 60.766285 °; 61.547156 °, 60.766285 °; 61.539757 °, 60.736381 °; 61.552246 °, 60.683289 °.

Previously similar monument was

The history of the construction activity of a person who served as the basis for the occurrence of architecture begins with the time when ancient people (Neanderthals), not satisfied with the nature created by nature (grotes, rocks of rocks and caves; Fig. 1 and 2), began to adapt these shelters for temporary and constant habitat, i.e. build housing. Such structures include: paved parking space La Ferrassi and Castillo, circular fences from stones with inner stone foci - Parking Ilskaya, artificial residential inventories, fenced along the edge of stones in the edge - Parking Wolf Grotto et al. (Fig. 3 ).

So the dwellings of the middle Paleolithic looked. According to the latest data, the average Paleolithic Europe ended about 35 thousand years ago.

For the average Paleolithic (Mustier culture), the following basic changes that occurred in the lives of people are characterized: the acquisition of skills and improving the methods of mining of fire, making clothes from the skins, improving the processing of silica, and from here and the general improvement of workers and hunting, which is becoming more productive. A person has the opportunity to create inventory reserves and use free time to create highly specialized guns, manufacturing products from wood and bone. There are primitives of art and house-building.

A specific reason for the occurrence of construction was a sharp change in climate, associated with the maximum Dnieper (risky) glaciation and caused the need for a more solid mastering of fire, the manufacture of warm clothing and the creation of permanent housing.

The warm climate of the Shellesky period of the early Paleolithic allowed at all not to take care of housing and clothing at all, but the glaciation, which, then, in the Mustier period (average Paleyolith), was at the following Acelian stage, forced people to be very active , but also to create artificial residential buildings (see Fig. 1).

5. Paleolithic housing in Pushkari I (Reconstruction of V. Zaporizhia) and the remains of bones that made up the structural basis of the Paleolithic dwelling

The need to build caused another need to create the necessary tools for this. In this regard, the two main types of tools typical of Mustier culture are a flint and scraper necessary in hunting production have been supplemented with a rigine. With this tool, it was possible not only to cut the animal carcass, but also to rip off the bark with a log and strict it.

At this time, there were no such chopping guns, like an ax (Fig. 4), and a manual rush, who came from his main feature, who came from the era of Shelleskaya and Ashhelian culture during this period, was not much useful for use for construction purposes, Since it is impossible to reflub the thick tree with it. Therefore, branches and subtle trunks of trees were used as structural elements of the housing, as well as the bones of large mammals, mainly mammoth (Fig. 5).

According to the Dniester Archaeological Expedition of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR (1955-1958), in the parking lot of young I, located near the village of Young in the Chernivtsi region, the remains of 15 firebins were traced within the fences from major bones of the Mammont. As a building material, skulls, blades, pelvic bones, testes, lower jaws and bones of mammoth limbs were used here. "Housing their ichthyophagi," says Strabo, "the coast of Ethiopia build mainly from the bones of large fish and from the shells, using the ribs for beams, and for the doors - jaws" (XV, 2, 2).

People of that time arranged their oven not only in grottoes, caves and under the canopies of rocks. They had to live on the plains, where it was necessary to build not only summer, mostly light and temporary dwellings, such as wind barrels and salars, but also winter, more capital dwellings - dugouts, which were small recesses in the ground roughly oval form.

Heat in such dwellings was supported by fires, which were divorced in special response pits, suitable directly in the ground floor, in the grooves, closed by stones.

An elementary division of labor in the floor, age and experience, which was the result of the natural complication of the labor process itself and the weapons associated with it were promoted to all this.

The appearance of a drill, characterizing the specialization, construction tool that began, at the same time clearly indicates what kind of construction and which construction and technical level could be carried out with it (Fig. 6). Judging by the nature of this tool, they were not great and represented very rough on finishing and primitive in the form of a deepening in the ground or laid out of large bones of Mammoth, stone and land fence (young V), covered with jersoes, branches, grass and skins. Also, the most primitive ground structures of this time were also to look like - Chalashi (Fig. 7).

At the stage of early Mustier culture, the primitive team of hunters was numbered - as it can be judged, in particular, in terms of the density of the cave Cave of Kikoba (Crimea) - from 30 to 50 people and occupied an area of \u200b\u200babout 70 m 2. These calculations were made by the archaeologist G.A. Bonch Osmolovsky (1940). According to P.P. Efimenko (1953), such a group could reach up to 100 units, and according to the calculations Yu.I. Semenova (1966) Its minimum composition was equal to 35-40, the maximum 75-90 and the optimal 50-60 people. In accordance with these data, an idea of \u200b\u200bthe sizes of the inhabitants of interest to us, which existed during the Mustierry culture should be added.

Probably the earliest of them, have not yet affected the significant influence of glaciation, represented open overheads, then appeared canopies, niches, grots, rafts, caves, stocks, dump trucks, and finally terrestrial, initially very small, then larger, and By the end of this period and large dwellings of the type of young I. The 15th fires detected here indicate that in this case we already have signs of the emergence of a significant amount of community dwelling, which was then characteristic of the residential facilities of the era of the upper (late) paleolyte.

The latter circumstance is explained by the fact that by this time, i.e., in the later Mouli period, when the Neanderthals were on the verge of converting modern physical type into people, their team was a significant genobal generic commune in their numerical composition. Thus, the Neanderthals were not only the first homies that created the earliest social team, but also the first builders people who created the earliest human housing.

From said it follows that the emergence of housing from European Neanderthals was mainly due to the need to hide from the cold. But this reason cannot be considered the only one, since this type of people at the specified time spread throughout ground Shar., including on African, continent, in tropics and subtropics, where, as you know, the overall cooling did not have a significant impact on climate change. The glacial era of the countries of the moderate belt in the tropics and subtropics corresponded to the era associated with frequent and abundant rains.

In this area of \u200b\u200bthe globe, climatic conditions could not serve a direct promising reason for the occurrence of housing and intensifying the activities of people in this direction, as well as in warm periods of Shelle and Ashhelian culture. Here the development of construction, naturally, went down to a slower pace and was determined by the specific, peculiar form of natural environment, production (hunting), life and family-generic organization; They could not disappear from those conditions in which hunting groups of their meetings who lived in the zone of the Glacier's environment, who mined their livelihoods in localities with a cold, raw, rainy summer and fairly frosty winters that needed warm, spacious, durable and constant overhaul dwelling.

10. Earth house of Novakhov and Iokutov huts made from Magnolia

On the African continent, even in sugar, in the period of Mustier culture, a full-water river, Flora and Fauna have flowed in richness and diversity. Naturally, in the inhabitants of these places, thanks to the abundance of finished gifts of nature, gathering in relation to the hunt continued to maintain a large proportion, and therefore there could not arise a special intensive intensive improvement in hunting, and hence others, including related to construction , Labor instruments. To protect yourself from the rain and wind, it was enough to arrange a light wind barrier, similar to that who lived at the Veda tribe to our time (Fig. 8), or make a carport of large palm leaves, sticking them with cuttings into the ground, or to build a flooring on The branches of a large tree, covering it above the head of smaller branches and grass (Fig. 9), or, finally, to build a small slab on the ground, stuck in the Earth, covered with branches, leaves, grass or bark, and sometimes poured on top of it Earth, about the way it was done in Novakhov who lived among the Indians of the South-West of North America (Fig. 10).

More large-scale residential facilities in these latitudes appeared when the total balance of not only plant, but also animal food began to significantly reduce and the hunters were forced to significantly change and improve the nature of their tools of hunting and labor. We will say this later, but for now, to complete the description of the earliest stage of construction activities, it should be noted that at the same time the earliest and primitive types of memorial structures appeared - Neanderthal burials.

It is established that for the burial of their dead, Neanderthals deliberately created special tag-graves. So, in France in the cave Moustie (the Upper Garonna Department), the skeleton of a young man was detected, buried in the recess in the pose of sleeping on the right side. His left elongated hands Lied scraper and chop. In France, six skeletons lying in artificial recesses were found in the La Ferrassi cave; One of these, the graves overlap the stone slab. These deepening in the ground made for the purpose of burial, suggest that at the same time the Neanderthal person could do the same recesses for the construction of housing (earthlings).

We now turn to the next stage of development of the construction activities of a primitive person - the top (late) Paleolithic.

This epoch ancient history Humanity, if you enjoy it traditional periodization, consists of three periods, including Orignaca cultures, Soltenian and Madelene.

The early period of the Upper Paleolithic - Orinyak, as well as Mustier, covers a period of time from about 40 to 14 thousand years. In this period, for the first time, permanent winter community dwellings are widely spread both in the form of large earthlings and in the form of large ground structures. On the nature of terrestrial paleolytic homes can be judged not only by archaeological data, but also by schematic images left by the offspring with primitive artists on the walls of the caves. Such ground dwellings (see Fig. 9) were seemed to be visible, on the advantage of a frame-type framework, made of rods, or tent-type, made from the poles and had a cone-shaped shape, as well as a semi-edible, covered with two skates.

The climate of this time, first cold and dry, gradually, as the glaciers retreat, it becomes increasingly humid and by the end of the upperopealyolitic period was relatively close to modern.

By the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, the Neanderthal Communion comes to change, a new type man, which, according to its anthropological data, is not different from modern people (Fig. 11).

The dwellings of these people, the remnants of their stone industry, characterizing the main order of their occupations, were also found in France in France in the Dordoni Departments (Cave-Comb, a canopy Blanchar, a canopy de la Rosett) and Charanta (Parking Fontshevad, La - Laa, La Kina, Canopy Vashon, Cave De-Roa).

The parking lots of the Orignance culture period found in Spain, Germany, Czechoslovakia, the USSR and other European countries, as well as in South-West Asia - Kamar-Akil parking, Jebel Kafsheh, Mugarl El Wad, etc.

This early course of the Upper Paleolithic, or the period of Orignan and Soltenian culture, can be considered in social relation as the period of the formation of a ranner-based society, which is characterized by the presence of exisogamy, matriarchate, durable settling, improvement of the technique of chick in the manufacture of stone guns. Primitive realistic art appears: drawing, painting, burner, round sculpture. Then, in the late course of the Upper Paleolithic (Madelene Culture), the decorations (various bracelets and necklaces) are widely applied and various household apparels.

Compared with the period of Mustier culture, the worn tools became very diverse, but the essential of them remained a cutter and a scraper; The first was intended for the processing of solid, and the second - for handling soft materials. Nucleus from discs became prismatic, i.e. correctly faceted, and the knife-shaped records, which, being larger, used to serve only with the material for the manufacture of various guns, now began to serve very good cutting tools.

For early pores, the upper Paleolithic is characterized by its prevalence of the healthy in terms of housing, having one hearth. Most often, such structures are dugouts; The considerable amount is found in different parts of the territory of the USSR. The remains of such a structure were open to P.P. Efimenko (1937) on the so-called Telman parking near the village of Kostenka near Voronezh. It was rounded in terms of 5.2-5.6 m in diameter and was bundled at 50-70 cm. Similar semi-races and dugouts were found in the messengers (Left Bank Ukraine), in a number of Dniprovsky Basin, near Bryansk (parking Eliseevichi and Yudinoso) and in other places.

It should not be noted here that great merit in the opening, study and description of Paleolithic housing belongs to the Soviet archaeologists, which put all these studies on a truly scientific basis.

On the parking lot of the bone of II P.I. Boriskovsky (1953) remained residues of larger dwellings than Telmansky. Its diameter is 7-8 meters. At the bottom of the dwelling there were bones of mammoths, some of which were inserted into the ground and formed the structural elements of the walls and roofs. In the center of the housing was the hearth. A.P. Okladnikov (1940) In the parking lot, the rest of the prime-ololytic village, which consisted of four small oval dwellings were investigated in the parking lot.

In addition to the above round and oval dwellings in the late Paleolithic era, elongated dwellings existed, more significant according to their size than the first. They were like an oval earthquake with several foci attached to another and connected to each other. The latter circumstance, as PI rightly notes. Boriskovsky, indicates that the residential technique that existed at this time has not yet developed the most convenient form of a large community dwelling.

The remains of two such elongated housing were found by A.N. Rogachev (1938) in the lower cultural layer of parking bones IV. Southern of these dwellings had 34, and northern 23 m length; Both width was 5.5 m, and the floor was bundled at 20-30 cm. On the floor of each dwelling along its longitudinal axis there were foci; In the north they were 9, and in southern - more than 10. In this housing, there were no clusters of large bones, which could indicate the use of them as structural elements. This gives reason to assume that in the bones IV not only had a new layout of housing, but also characterizing its volumetric construction of a certain type of structure were applied.

On the territory of the USSR, there was another type of constructions of the late Paleolithic, from which residential platforms remained in size 500-800 m 2. They were not deepened to the ground and, apparently, served as a place of habitat of a whole race. Such platforms are probably covered with chalas, in the bones I had a length of 35 and in a width of 16 m. Along their long axis at a distance of 2 m from each other, foci were located.

The remains of such dwellings were found in with. Andeev near Kursk in 1946-1949. The length of the residential platform in this case was 45 m, and the width is 20 m. The position of the foci and holes available in the ground near them, along the edges of the entire site and on its axis, their dimensions, the magnitude of the plug and the general shape of the site give reason to assume that It was already a large ground dwelling, the basis of which was a feather-beam design.

In the era of the late Paleolithic, simultaneously with the specified housing types, there were temporary hunting lags.

At the very end of this era, during the periods of late Soltenian and Madelene culture, permanent dwellings on the modern territory of the USSR disappeared. Their seat was taken by seasonal overhangs, located along the banks of the rivers, which the main source of livelihood of livelihoods were taken to the next paleolithite.

To replace large dugouts, twilight and ground dwellings that had walls with a frame of large mammals, small dwellings of the type of modern flying and salars came.

It should not be noted here that the late Paleolithic is not only significant for the fact that during this period the entire appearance of our distant ancestors has finally changed and a certain type of dwelling created by them has appeared, but also the fact that at this time there was a completely new sphere of human activity - visual art . The latter deserves that a few words have been said about him, since without mastering the art, a person could not rise so quickly to that step of construction activity, which is referred to as architecture.

The leading plots of the whole period, including Orinyak, Soltenian and Madelene art, were in the drawing and painting of animal images, and in the sculpture, the image of a female mother. The first is explained by the fact that the study and fixation of all properties of animals, a person of this pore pore the daily need to know the main object of their hunt to make it easier for them, and the second, naturally, was connected with the role that belongs to the woman at this time as in economic and physiological terms. Abundant material confirming said, assembled by archaeologists in all, almost without exception, countries of the world.

For the art of the Orinyak period, numerous images found in Castillo cave (Spain) are characterized. Most of them are made in the form of linear silhouettes deposited by red paint; Two contour drawings of horses are made fine engraving. Interestingly engraved image of a horse in a cave Horodie de la Peña (Spain). By the end of this period, the ability to grasp accurately and transfer not only the main outlines of the overall form of the animal, but also its proportions, as well as the characteristic movements of his body.

Among the best statuettes of this era depicting a female body, with sharply underlined signs of the floor, along with those found in Villendorf ( Lower Austria) And some other places in Europe, the statuettes from ivory found in the bones of I and in the village of Gagarino, Voronezh region, can be attributed.

In the subsequent - Soltenian - and the beginning of the Madlena period, the linear image of the animal is complemented by hatching along the contour, detecting separate parts of its body: ears, eyes, nostrils, mouth, etc., and also begins modeling of the entire form, turning it from plane into bulk.

Polychromic painting reached the greatest heyday in the Madelena period, when the primitive artist has learned to simulate the form with not only the stroke, but also colors. Excellent samples of such primitive realistic painting are in a large number of France caves: La Madeleine, the background de Gom, Lasco, etc. and Spain: Castillo, Altamira, Horot de la Pena (Fig. 12).

The main object of the image was the major mammals and herbivores (mammoth, deer, bison, horse), as well as often large predators, habits and the image of the action of which could not but be in the field of view of the primitive artist-hunter (Fig. 13). But the time has come when the plains began to overcome forests and these large animals (especially the Mammoth) began to quickly die, and the herd of bison and wild horses decreased strongly. At the same time, the art was gradually rushed into the fly and associated with their images, which, due to changes in the object of the image, could no longer be so actively serve the goals of knowledge and therefore lost the sharpness of perception, which means that the reality of the reality, which we still say especially.

Of course, this does not mean that it was completely lost and the whole experience gained by people in mastering the color, line and shape. It was useful when creating jewelry associated with household item, weapons, clothes, shoes and housing. But it happened not soon.

Humanity entered into a new phase of its existence - the middle stone century (mesolith). This period lasted only a few thousand years (from 12 to 5 thousand years before. Er), but had its own characteristic features of both the economic and economic and technical terms.

In connection with the changes in the fauna of Europe, as well as in other places undergoing the influence of glaciation, the very object of hunting has significantly changed, and therefore should have been changed and necessary for her tools. With a change in the number of large beasts, the hunter's attention, naturally, began to attract smaller animals, as well as fish and birds. Onions, arrows, rude and microliths appeared, i.e., guns made from small stones, and then the so-called insertion technique of their use: a person began to invest in a nesting-sleeve (holder) of the handle made from durable Tree or bone.

The injection hunt for large scale associated with the need to have a big hunting team has lost its meaning. Such a team now, in the new conditions of a sharp reduction in the possibility of obtaining a large number of food at once, it was difficult to feed, and he was forced to decrease in its composition and become more movable. Therefore, during this period, areas that are comfortable for the injection hunt, that is, those near the cliffs, raft and rocks were stopped serving a long-term habitat. This is reflected in multilayer parkings with a number of thin lenses of the cultural layer, for example, in a number of parking lots at the Dnieper thresholds and others. Square of these parking lots are small, which indicates the crushing of communities. The same says the disappearance of large community houses, which are now replaced by small dugouts and shalas. Such are the parking lot of Elin Bor, Gremyachye, Gorki (USSR), Duhor (France), a number of parking in Czechoslovakia and other countries.

New economic and economic and purely technical capabilities arising during this period had a direct impact on construction. The appearance of special tools (microliths) and the insertion technique of their use led to significant progress in primitive construction and made it much faster than before, to build the necessary buildings.

The next and moreover, the most significant step in this direction was made at the beginning of the era of the new Stone Age - Neolith. It was associated with the advent of such an instrument as a stone ax, which radically changed all the methods of wood processing. In addition, this to the guns played a considerable role in the development of agriculture, giving the opportunity to cleanse the land of the land from the forest ("housing agriculture") from the forest).

A particularly important role of the ax began to play when the technique of grinding of stone guns was mastered. This role is well shown by the Soviet researcher S.A. Semenov. "In Neolithic," he writes, "the society begins to process axes and Tesla with grinding technique. This fact, of course, is regarded as a progressive achievement. But the researchers, stating this fact and noting the improvement of the processing process, do not notice, to which consequences it leads. In fact, this narrow technical achievement opens a new era in the history of mankind. The huge spaces of the globe remaining uninhabited, become available for settlement and development due to the polished ax and tesla. The development of forest areas of the northern hemisphere, tropics and the island world in Pacific Ocean It happens not only because ground axes were significantly more efficiently unlocked in the cutting of trees for housing, boats, pile structures, in the furnished farming, but also because the grinding technique made it possible to produce these guns from rocks "(S.A. Semenov. primitive Technique. M., 1957, p. 229.).

Polishing at this time was mostly subjected to a woodople tool, which won significantly from this in its performance. Polishing of stone weapons contributed to the fact that their forms became clearer, and this led to their differentiation.

15. Pueblo Bonito. General view (reconstruction) and plan

16. Tripoli culture: sectional dwelling and painted ceramics (s. Zhura)

17. The long house of the Seinea-Iroquois tribe. General view and plan (by L.G. Morganu)

At the end of Neolithic, polished tools were sometimes drilled. Such an instrument having a drilled hole could be affected by handle. Most often, such an Nazad was made in polished axes (Fig. 14).

The main classes of people are neolithic, where the generic system has already reached a bloom, there were developed hunting and competing fishing with her, as well as a pottery craft at this time. The cattle breeding, which is obliged to the appearance of wild animals, and agriculture, genetically associated with collecting, were at this time in its infancy.

As hunting for animals and birds, and fishing demanded a rather large human team, but not to the extent that it was in Mesolith, since now, due to the appearance of a bow and arrows, perfect tools for fishing (harpoon, rude, network And the hook), the total mining of hunting in the forest and fishing on the water has increased significantly. This allowed hunting generic groups to come together to large overhead and building huge housing (with an area of \u200b\u200b300 m 2) of the type of a huge round in the slag plan, found in the village of Kelteminar, in which it could be placed under one roof at the same time more than 100 people. (This Parking IV Millennium BC. Er found in the lower AMU-Darya, in the Turtkulsky district, Uzbek SSR). In such a huge chaolate, a team of a whole kind was placed.

Simultaneously with such a type of settlement of a whole genus, there were other types of them, such as parking, consisting of 10-12 separate small dugouts, covered with sludge, with a hearth in the middle, in which 5-6 people were located, which was usually evidenced by relicing phenomena related to The previous period of construction.

To such types of facilities, both round-shaped underground dwellings - Kiva, which were probably old, could be attached to the similar type of facilities - Kiva, which were probably ancient, since they had a flat roof with a light-smoke opening that served simultaneously and input; You could get through it in the dwelling. Apparently, hence this way to use the stairs then passed by tradition to all Indian Pueblo (Fig. 15).

An analogous structures of Mexican Estafa, who later accepted a different form also had a similar form.

The main building material from which these dwellings was built was a tree.

A similar type, closed, inaccessible from the outside of the dwellings at that time was built in other parts of the world, wherever people enjoy a stone grinded ax, and they used them everywhere.

A characteristic feature of large dwellings of this time, having a centric plan, was that they had inside several small household foci and one large - a common central source of cult destination.

We note, by the way, that in general the gradual appearance of a cult focus (the altar), its separation for use is only in ritual purposes, and in connection with this, the emergence of separately standing cult facilities (altars) and buildings (temples) marked the emergence of not only property, But the social inequality, the development of which in everywhere contributed to gradually strengthened not only their military, but also the economic power of leading tribes, as well as in every possible way, contributing to the ministers of the cult.

In addition, the dwelling in the village of Keltemsornar, i.e., to the IV millennium BC. e., the early houses of Tripolian culture found in the territory of the Right Bank of Ukraine, for the flow of the lower and middle Dnipro, Bug and Dniester (Fig. 16). These houses are gradually replaced by very large multiple housing, separated into several rooms (Fig. 17).

At the tract, the kolomyism, which is located at a distance of a half-kilometer from the village of Halepier on the Dnieper, was opened in 1938. A whole settlement consisting of 39 Housing of Tripolsky type. They are located two concentric circles. The diameter of the inner circle is 50-60 m, and the external - 170 m. Part of these houses (8) are small, and the rest of the middle and large sizes, painful; They could live at 20-30 people. The entire village had a population over 500 people.

The presence of a large number of foci in the dwellings was associated with the division of the matriarchal kind into several paired families. "These families," says L. G. Morgan, referring to the similar principles of the dwelling planning at Iroquoke, - built large houses, are quite extensive to accommodate several families, and we can assume that in all parts of America of the native period, people lived in individual families In some houses, and extensive, multi-way households. "

The appearance in the IV millennium BC. e. The clay walls and gestures from burned clay in the dwelling, as well as ceramic products (Fig. 16) indicates the homogeneous nature of these phenomena belonging to the neolithic. In the process of laying the foundations of architecture, this period is noted by the appearance of not only more perfect than before, terrestrial dwellings, but also the more perfect species of their decor - ornament.

At the beginning of Neolithic, pottery production was mainly mainly in the manufacture of vessels: large - for storage of reserves, medium - for cooking food and small - for eating (Fig. 18). They were manually manufactured (without pottery Circle), by imposing clay harnesses with layers on each other in a spiral. For applying the ornament, comb-tiles were used - stamps, with the help of which the drawing was created from the rows of lines and snaps. Later, ceramics with a geometric curvilinear pattern appeared and, finally, with painted colored ornament applied with a brush.

The emergence and development of ornamental creativity also promoted weaving various baskets and other products from thin, flexible branches or cane. Hence, for the first time, the penetration of ornamental motives in the construction scope began.

The appearance of painted ceramics is usually associated with the emergence of settlements, the most typical for the Eneolita - a period transient between the epochs of the stone and bronze century. Such settlements in the IV millennium BC are becoming common everywhere and are characterized by the following four signs that determine both the essence of the Eneolyt's era itself, i.e. the period when copper and stone tools coexist; Moth agriculture begins to dominate other types of farms; It is noted the presence of a large number of women's figurines characteristic of the existence of the mother; Great, usually global residential buildings are obtained.

Copper guns were very few, preferably it was ax, in many respects repeated their stone prototype. The copper ax for all his data could not withstand the topor bronze, which soon changed it; However, the same fate has suffered many other tools associated with Eneolita's era.

The early stone dwellings of the neolithic era in Europe also include round, oval and rectangular houses in the pool of the Aegean Sea.

The most ancient round house was discovered in Orkhomen (Beochia); Its diameter reached 6 m. The lower part of its walls (1 m thick) was made of a small stone on a clay solution, the top is from raw bricks. He was blocked, probably a dome. In the houses of the late period, one of the walls was direct, thanks to which the stretched half-haired was in the plan. Rectangular houses in Orkhomen appeared only together with bronze guns (Fig. 19). Similar houses are found during the neolithic period (a house in Serucci, Italy; Fig. 20) and later - in Ancient Greece on about. Argos (Fig. 21).

The Bronze Age covers the III and II millennium BC. er, but he did not immediately spread throughout the globe. And when in all the Aegean world, Egypt, two-frequency, Syria, China and India has already come a breakdown of a slave-owned society, in most European and Asian countries, the primitive purchase system remained.

The climate change that began in the late neolitis, which became more and more dry, led to the fact that the forests were given the place at a considerable space. Due to this, the development of cattle breeding and agriculture has spread on the fields engaged in previously a few communities of hunters and fishermen.

With the growth of cattle breeding, the nature of agriculture has significantly changed, which has become fat, plug-in, based on the use of livestock.

By the end of the bronze century, a patriarchal-generic system was formed in Europe. There was a developed cult of ancestors and complex ritual, which led to the creation of cult facilities such as Kurgan, Cromleha and a number of megalitic structures.

It is impossible not to say about other continents, which also made their significant contribution to the general development of both religious buildings and arts, especially plastic, directly related to architecture.
Let us dwell in this regard in Ancient Africa.

Foreign science paid little attention to the achievements of the material culture of the "Black Continent", but thanks to the later objective research of her own figures, it was established that, as well as in the territory of the future France and England, the most ancient inhabitants South Africa We used the same manual rubble. Stone grinding technique also made great successes here, which predetermined a significant leap and in construction.

The evidence of the relatively high culture of South Africa can serve, in particular, the fact that mummifying (as it was established by the well-known Italian scientist Fabrizio Mori) practiced much earlier than in the oldest development of culture on the territory of the Nile River Valley.

Returning to the bronze century, we note that for the beginning of this era, in Central Europe, two types of dwellings were characterized by small settlements: rounded round in the plan in the plan, treated in the section of the house and terrestrial rectangular in the plan of the house with a shoulder walls, cropped clay.

In Brittany, during this period, there were also two types of dwellings: dried in the ground, covered with conical roofs, and terrestrial round with walls laid out of stone. Next to the settlement, consisting of such houses, a fence was arranged for a cattle pitch. Residents of such a village were engaged in breeding livestock and growing cereals.

In the territory of modern Southeast Spain, residential buildings sometimes had two floors, and settlements were surrounded by high stone walls.

The wider distribution in the Bronze Age was obtained by pile buildings, the Italian type of which was the so-called terramars - wooden logs filled with stones and clay, which were satisfied with the bases that served as the basis for usually round in terms of huts (Fig. 22).

The pile buildings were constructed in other places: in Oceania, North Djakov on about. Borneo, in Switzerland, etc. The large settlement of Mors on the piles was created in the Bronze Age on Geneva Lake. It has been pulled up to 360 m and wide from 30 to 45 m.

Significantly changed their character and tripole settlements by this time. In connection with the development of cattle breeding, large large-scale ground buildings disappeared, they were replaced by small global houses and a sonorn.

In the II millennium BC. e. It is already almost not found typical of the earlier tripoly culture of painted ceramics. It becomes one-color. Ceramics with a cord ornament, with a print of the rope on the surface of the product. We are increasingly found when excavations of the straight degree, which indicates the development of spinning and weaving. Occasionally there are products from iron.

At the very end of the Eneolyt and in the Bronze Age, fortified settlements appeared, which later received at the beginning of the Iron Century, wider distribution, as wars became permanent phenomenon.

An example of this kind of settlement of the Iron Age can serve as an ancient town of Tsushowl on Smolenc region, the excavations of which were started in 1955 (Fig. 23). The site of this settlement has an outline close to oval. Its length is 35 m, width (in the middle) 32 m. It occupies the Cape of the root shore of the river Truchl, the left tributary of the Socket. From the side of the coast, this platform was protected by five earthen shafts and Rips. The height of the largest shaft above the site of the settlement was 3 m.

The general nature of residential structures, their fences and a constructive scheme, as well as the site of the iconic area are visible on the example of the birch sodges (Fig. 24).

Along with the townships of Truch, who served as a place of temporary asylum from the enemy, there were so-called pilacalnis (Latvian and Lithuanian SSR) - small townships that were intended for constant habitat. The logging structures of this time (the second half of the II millennium BC and the beginning of the I millennium) deserve special attention. These include mounds, which we have already mentioned both about memorial structures. As usual, in the history of the development of memorial structures, residential buildings were served by their prototype, in this case, a chopped residential building.

Kurgan was constructed as follows.

First of all, in the ground, a large rectangular yam broke out, then a log house with a wooden floor was built in it. In this srub, another log box was installed, which served as a burial chamber. The space between both cameras was sometimes filled with stones. Then they were overlapped with two rivers of logs and, covering bark and bark, the earth was falling asleep, which formed a hill. To the top of this hill pounced a stone. So, in particular, Pazyryk kurgan was built, located in the Pazyryk Valley of the Altai Mountain Altai.

The wooden core of these structures is a log house. Like Italy terramars, they should be considered the first step towards creating a terrestrial chopped log building, which is obliged by its advent of a metal ax, but has not yet been confusing in a constructive attitude to the technique of diverse modern wrist. The cutting dwelling was also common in the Baltic, Finnish and Turkic tribes.

25. Mengir: A - Mengiri in Brittany; 6 - Mengir Statue near Saint-Germain (Averon, France)
26. Dolmen near Maikop (USSR) and a group of Dolmen at Salisbury (England)	27. Megalithic facilities

Bronze reached its highest development and structures from huge stones, which appeared in neolithic, so-called megaliths: mengirs, dolmen, alineimans, indoor passages, crumb, etc. (Fig. 25, 26).

All types of these structures are usually associated with one or another cult of the ancestors (Mengir, Dolmen), fire or sun (Cromlech), Totema (Betil), etc.

Megalithic structures found very widely distribution almost everywhere - from Scandinavia to Algeria, from Portugal to China, Korea and India. A lot of them are found in France, in Belgium, in the USSR (especially in the North Caucasus), in Sweden, in England and Scotland, in Greece, along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, in Tunisia, Egypt and many other countries (Fig. 27).

The fact of almost the widespread spread of this type of structures indicates that they served as an expression of ideas that were common to all people of this era, regardless of their geographic location. Such an idea, it seems to us, could be the desire to materialize the consciousness of the meaning of your personality, to approve its power and inviolability, keep the memory of it for offspring for the century. It is not by chance that these stones had a huge (especially for lifting technology of that time) weight and sizes. If they keep in mind their historical relationship with later structures with the features of architecture, then Mengir is a tombstone monument or a monument similar to the idea of \u200b\u200ba memorial military column, Dolmen is a crypt, the simplest tomb, or sarcophagus, and Cromroy in Stonkhenge is Already the temple, although very primitive (Fig. 28).

In the last type, we have a reason to see a structure in which the technical task not only found a certain type of solution, but also received a certain aesthetic embodiment, indicating the mastering of the builders with a sense of space, rhythm, proportions, scale and forms. Such qualities do not possess other megaliths, as they all on the specified signs and their appearance closer to the amorphous creatures of nature than to the work of human hands.

But both Cromlekh in Stonkhenja - not yet established architectural constructionsAlthough there are already some signs of our signs. It is too massive, his verticals are severe in relation to horizontals. The technique of the image here prevails over its artisticity, as in all, without exception, other structures preceding the creation of Cromleha: dugouts, twilights, chalays, terrestrial global and other structures that had only a purely utilitarian purpose. The art form arises when the utilitarian form reaches a certain perfection. So it was also at the final stage of the Bronze Age, and during the early iron period, when crafts and art industries were especially actively actively. About the more elementary forms of development of spatial representations of the preceding crumb, say strings of stones (Fig. 29).

At the improvement of construction and technical forms, it could not be affected by the improvement of the instruments of the labor tools themselves, which exactly at that time became more durable, and more acute, and more convenient, due to which the material was also becoming less rude, more beautiful. The more naturalization of tools, allowing more subtle processing of both the main building materials - wood and stone and metal (Fig. 30), contributed to the same.

Improved iron guns, developed processing of metals, turning into an art craft, raising the general level of material, and at the same time and the spiritual production, as F. Engels pointed out [ F. Engels. The origin of the family, private property and the state. M., Mimovitisdat, 1945, p. 33-34.] That's what gave the opportunity to appear civilization. The achievements of this primitive civilization allowed the ancient builder to rise at a higher level in achieving the artistic quality of its buildings (Fig. 31-32).

So from the decision of a purely technical (structural-construction) problem and the subsequent aesthetic understanding of building structures and their parts, as well as the admission to the construction created with their help, the artistic and technical construction occurred, capable of satisfying not only the utilitarian, but also the spiritual needs of people, - Architecture.

A visual example confirming the said is the Greek Megaron, who, if we consider it at the stage of development related to the III millennium BC, was an elementary technical structure intended for shelter from rain and wind, heat, cold, etc. d., i.e. for housing. There were gross walls, dol, doorway, and instead of a window - light-chimney over the simplest type of the hearth.

But there were centuries, and this is the inner space of the Greek-Itali House (once had the wiggy ceiling and walls) began to look not only light, clean, but also beautiful, since instead of the gross four poles that stood in the corners of the light-chimney, an elegant colonnade appeared , formed the architectural core of the atrium. Instead of the focus, an artistic decorated altar appeared.

Everything here was performed in the possesses of the shapes, scales, proportions, flavor, invoices, etc., that is, it was aesthetically ennobled, and it began to be, along with the solution of a certain technical task, its artistic embodiment is an architectural work.

A more complete and comprehensive consideration of the paths for which the construction of them went and born by him, having entered into the second socio-economic formation - a slave-owned society, constitutes the content of the following heads of real labor.

The head of the "Narget of architecture" books "Universal history of architecture. Tom I. Architecture Ancient Mira" Posted by: V.Y. Circus; Edited by O.Kh. Halpachchen (R. Ed.), E.D. Kvitnitskaya, V.V. Pavlova, A.M. Proflitive. Moscow, Stroyzdat, 1970

Late Stone Age (Neolith) was a colorful prehistory period, it was then that unprecedented examples of human cooperation began to appear. Therefore, this era includes one of the most mysterious and interesting archaeological monuments that can be seen today. There are actually so much that some amazing ancient monuments just began to forget. So let's look at one of the best ancient facilities of the Neolithic era, which can be found in the UK.

10. Karn Gluze (Carn Gluze), or Bolowavel Barrow (Ballowall Barrow)

This ancient Kurgan is pretty well known. Located in the south-west of Great Britain in Cornwall, this place was originally rumped in garbage from a nearby mine. The local legend states that dark rituals were held here, and that this place at night it is better to go around the party.

The structure consists of two concentric circles and a grave hill located in their center that surrounds the circular wall. The grave hill itself was originally tumped up a few meters. In the hill, archaeologists have discovered 5 tomb, in which there was a variety of pots belonging to the bronze century. It is believed that the rectangular notch was the place of restoring one of the dead. Then the hill was covered with land or covered with stones, and, allegedly, was a symbolic entrance to the otherworldly world. Some archaeologists believe that Kurgan is located in the parking lot ancient man, Period of early Stone Age.

9. Lannon Quio (Lanyon Quoit)


This interesting structure is called Dolmen and is part of another complex of tombs. Some dolmen were built in 4000 before our era, which means that they are 2000 years older than the pyramids in Giza. Initially, this building was quite high, so that the rider flew freely on his horse. In prehistoric time, the structure was surrounded by an earthen shaft, like Kurgan, but the Earth waddle due to erosion.

A huge stone lying on top of standing stones, weighs a lot of any little - 13.5 tons, and in order for it to at least move to the efforts of several dozen people would take.

8. MEN-AN-TOL (MEN-AN-TOL) or DEVIL 'EYE)


Translated from the original Cornwall language "MEN-AN-TOL" means "stone with a hole." There are few people known about the stones, we know only that they were cut out of very durable granite. Several hundred man-hours passed on the manufacture of central stone. According to some theories, the round stone was the entrance to the ancient tomb, or possibly part of the calendar. These stones are here from Neolithic, nevertheless, the local farmer could move them after some of them fell due to bad weather.

Round stone with a hole in the center was considered panacea from all diseases, and was used in medicinal rituals in which children were passed through a hole in a stone to cure diseases. The legend says that if the woman passes through the hole 7 times with the full moon, it will become pregnant.

7. West Kennet Long Barrow (West Kennet Longbarrow)


West Kennet-Long Barrow is a huge structure that stretches more than 91 meters. It is older Stonehenge for 400 years and was erected at 3,600 BC. Unlike the Kurgans from previous points, in the West Kennet-Long Barrow you can go inside. The lower right photo demonstrates the view from the entrance to the structure. In West Kennet-Long-Barrow, archaeologists have found more than 50 human skeletons. The most interesting thing is that, apparently, the bones were sorted by various types and stored in different rooms. A wide facade stone that can be seen on the top photo, periodically closed the entrance to protect the structure from potential graves robbers.

This main stone also allegedly serveled the scenery for the burial rituals, which were held before the deceased entered inside. For a thousand years of use of Kurgan, the popular type of ritual was heavenly burial. Archaeologists believe that the bodies of the departed put near the burial site. As soon as the flesh from the bones disappeared due to the action of the forces of nature, the bones were collected and transferred inside the structure.

6. Stones Rollright (Rollright Stones)


This complex consists of several different structures, the most interesting structure of which is Kingsmen (Kingsmen), shown in the photo above. These standing stones are laid out in the perfect circle, their height ranges from several tens of centimeters to 2.1 - 2.4 meters. It is believed that the stones originally concerned each other, forming an ideal continuous circle. Archaeologists discovered the evidence of fires that were lit in the center of the circle. It is quite possible that this is proof of the conduct of ancient feasts or rituals of sacrifice, which were held in a circle.

5. Devil's arrows (Devil's Arrows)


The arrows of the devil are three standing stone or mengir. They are dotted with distinctive grooves left by rain centuries. The stones are built in the line from the north to south and could be pointers of the border of the tribe or place of assembly. It is believed that other ancient facilities are on the same line with stones, and it is quite possible that the stones were landmarks for pilgrimage. Nevertheless, very little is known about these stones. The local legend states that the devil threw these stones to the nearby town of Oldborough (Aldborough), but missed, and the stones themselves remained where they fell.

4. Stonehenge (Stonehenge)


Stonehenge is one of the most legendary places on Earth, which has been the imagination of archaeologists for many centuries. The most interesting thing is that this building is actually not Henge at all. Usually, Hengi is distinguished by the fact that they have an outer ring earthen shaft and an inner round site, but Stonehenge has everything on the contrary - an internal earthy embankment, surrounded by a plane.

Stonehenge is an example of unprecedented cooperation in the country, the population of which was very small and highly scattered around the territory. 80 stones forming the inner circle were delivered here from the territory of modern Wales, which is at a distance of more than 386 kilometers. Each of these stones weigh more tons, so one only transportation of such stones required a high degree of consistency and it is undoubtedly an impressive achievement by itself. However, larger boulders have weighed for several tons and for their installation needed to be in-depth knowledge of the mechanisms of blocks of blocks or a huge amount of labor. Ferrous stones or jumper stones fixed on standing stones using a trough.

Stonehenge is believed to be used as a crematorium or temple to celebrate the life of the deceased. The ritual power track binds Stonehenge with a nearby river, which in turn is associated with another Henge called Darrington Walls (Durrington Walls), in which there are wooden poles instead of stones. According to one of the theories, first people celebrated the life of a deceased person in Darrington Walls, after which they descended along the river in Stonehenge, where they celebrated the death of the deceased.

3. Skara Bray (Skara Brae)


Skara Bray is one of the most well-preserved places in this list. Skara-Bray is located on one of the Scottish Orkney Islands (Orkney), and it is often referred to as the Scottish Version Pompey because he has been so well preserved.

In essence, this place is a city built on a hill formed from the economic garbage of the primitive person, buried under the layer of sedimentary rocks. Some archaeologists believe that this place refers to the third millennium to our era.

This place is very useful in that you can tell us a lot about the life of ancient people. We know that its inhabitants were major ceramics producers, known as groove ceramics, which was widespread in the whole of the UK. The area of \u200b\u200beach house is approximately 12 square meters and in its center is the center. It is believed that the inhabitants of houses heated them through the burning of a local peat. Their diet basically consisted of seafood, and for the most part they were fed by algae and molluscs. Each house had stone furniture, including cabinets, chairs, dressers, storage boxes, as well as a door that was locked from the inside. It is even more impressive that in every house there was a complex drainage system and a primitive version of the modern toilet.

This place is surrounded by numerous disputes. Some archaeologists believe that people who lived here were simple pastoral farmers, while others believe that the inhabitants of these houses were a group of high-ranking individuals and theocrats who were considered local wise men, almost like an eloor of ancient Greece.

2. Cheddar Gorge (CsedDar Gorge)


Cheddar gorge, which is often seen as a British analogue of the Grand Canyon, this is no doubt the oldest archaeological place in this list. The gorge of a depth of 137 meters includes the myriads of various structures of the Stone Age, the oldest of which belongs to the late Paleolithic (early period of the Stone Age). His age is almost 12,000 years, which makes it older than the earliest Egyptian cultures.

The gorge is a series of caves. The two main caves are the GAU cave (Gough's Cave) and Cox Cave (COX 'CAVE). It was in the cave GAU archaeologists who discovered the earliest full skeleton of man. The skeleton was called the Chedar man (Cheddar Man) and he is more than 9,000 years old. Archaeologists have discovered signs of violent death on it. It is possible that he became a victim of cannibalism, judging by the potentially fatal injury to the skull.

Other finds included flint headors and flint tips. They were scattered throughout the terrain, which indicates that it was most likely a community of collector hunters. Both caves may be used for prehistoric manufacturing cheese, from here and their name went.

1. NewGrange (NewGrange)


NewGrending is one of the most undervalued places in the UK. He is more and older Stonehenge. NewGrending is a huge Kurgan, which is part of the 5,000-year-old BRU-Na-Loyne complex (BRU NA BOINNE).

Its height is 13.5 meters, and the diameter of 85 meters is the structure of a truly monumental scale. The mound surrounds the reconstructed facade of white quartz, as the old facade partially crumbled due to erosion. The weight of the stones alone used in the construction of this Kurgan, in the aggregate of 200,000 tons. In all likelihood, the hill was erected by hundreds of workers, and for control over its construction, very experienced and skilled engineers were needed.

Inside Kurgan is one of the largest tombs in Western EuropeThe 18-meter leads to it, almost a cruciform passage, and the entrance to the Kurgan, located on the south-eastern side, is very richly decorated.

In this tomb, it was possible to initially stored bones of the leaders of a local tribe or sages. If this is so, then the structure can technically be called a crypt, since in those days, the usual practice was heavenly burial or excarnation, during which the powered bodies were left under open skySo that the forces of nature cleared them to the bones, and then these bones were buried in tombs. Finally, it is worth noting that this construction contains rare examples of the art of a stone threading, belonging to nonolith. To cut these abstract curls, which can be viewed at the entrance to Kurgan, significant skills were required.