Why geographic discoveries were performed. Chapter IV

The era of great geographical discoveries is the most important stage in the history of mankind. This is the time when the outlines of the continents, the seas and oceans are becoming more accurate, the technical devices are improved, and the leading countries of that time send navigators to search for new rich lands. In this lesson, you will learn about the maritime expeditions of Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus and Fernana Magellan, as well as about the opening of new lands.

Prehistory

Among the causes of great geographical discoveries can be called:

Economic

After the era of crusades, the Europeans have developed durable trade relations with the East. In the east, Europeans bought spices, fabrics, jewels. In the XV century Land caught paths for which Europeans trade was carried out with eastern countrieswere captured by the Turks. The task of finding the sea route to India appeared.

Technological

Compass and astrolabia were improved (instrument for measuring latitude and longitude).

New types of shipping, Karak and Galeon appeared. They differed apartments and powerful sailing equipment.

Were invented navigation maps - Portulans.

Now Europeans could make not only traditional coastal swimming (that is, predominantly along the shores), but also go far to the open sea.

Events

1445 - The expedition organized by Heinrich Marithelter reached green cape (Western African Point). Madeira Island, Canary Islands, Part Azores.

1453 - Constantinople captured by the Turks.

1471 - Portuguese first reached the equator.

1488 - Expedition Bartolomeu Diash reached the most southern point of Africa - Cape Good Hope.

1492 - Christopher Columbus opened the Islands of San Salvador, Haiti, Cuba in the Caribbean.

1497-1499. - Vasco da Gama reached the Indian port of Calicut, having encouraged Africa. For the first time, a way to east through the Indian Ocean was opened.

1519 - Fernan Magellan goes to the expedition in which opens Pacific Ocean. And in 1521 reaches the Mariana and Philippine Islands.

Participants

Fig. 2. Astrolabia ()

Fig. 3. Karavella ()

Successes were achieved in cartography. European cartographers began to make maps with more accurate outlines of the coast of Europe, Asia and North America. Portuguese invented navigation maps. On them, in addition to the outlines of the shores, were depicted settlementsfound on the way of obstacles, as well as locations in the ports. These navigation maps were called portulans.

The discoverers were becoming spaniards and Portuguese. The idea of \u200b\u200bconquering Africa was born in Portugal. However, Knight's cavalry was helpless in the sands. Portuguese prince Heinrich Navigator (Fig. 4) I decided to try the sea route along the western coast of Africa. The expeditions organized by them opened the island of Madeira, part of the Azores, Canary Islands. In 1445, the Portuguese reached the Western point of Africa - Green Cape . Several later, the coast of the Guinean Gulf was opened. There was a large amount of gold, ivory. Hence it turned out and the name is the Golden Beach, the coast of ivory. At the same time, African slaves were discovered, which traded local leaders. Portugal became the first European country, which began to sell a living product.

Fig. 4. Heinrich Navigator ()

Already after the death of Heinrich Marigolvator, Portuguese in 1471 reached the equator. In 1488, expedition Bartolome Diash reached the southern end of Africa - Cape of good hope. Cutting into Africa, this expedition reached the Indian Ocean. However, due to the sailor renom, Bartolome Diash was forced to return back. His way continued Vasco da Gama (Fig. 5)which B. 1497-1499. He came down in Africa and after 8-month swimming arrived in the Indian port of Calicate (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5. Vasco da Gama ()

Fig. 6. Opening of the sea route to India, route Vasco da Gama ()

Simultaneously with Portugal, finding a new sea route to India Spainin which at this time rules Isabella Castilskaya and Ferdinand Aragon. Christopher Columbus (Fig. 7) offered a new plan - reach India, moving to the West, through Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus shared the view that the Earth had a spherical shape. On August 3, 1492, Columbus on three Karavellah "Santa Maria", "Ninya" and "Pinta" went from Spain to search for India (Fig. 8). On October 12, 1492, the Karavel "Pint" came a shot. It was a signal: sailors reached the island that they called San Salvadorthat translated means "Holy Savior". Research, they went to the south and opened two more islands: Haiti (then Espanyol) and Cuba Island.

Fig. 7. Christopher Columbus ()

Fig. 8. Route Christopher Columbus ()

The first expedition of Columbus lasted 225 days and opened Caribbean Sea. During the next three expeditions, Columbus opened the coast Central America and north coast South America. However, the Spanish crown did not suit the amount of gold that came to the country. Soon from Columbus turned away. He died in 1506 in poverty, confident that he opened a new sea route to India. Mainland, outdoor Columbus, originally called West India (Western India.). Only later, the mainland gave a name America.

Rivalry of Spain and Portugal led to the first partition in the history of the world. IN 1494 year was concluded Tordesillas AgreementAccording to which, in the Atlantic Ocean, a conventional meridian was carried out somewhat west of the Azores. All again open land And the sea to the west of it should have belonged to Spain, and to the east - Portugal. but first in the world trip around the world Fernana Magellan. Adjusted this document.

Back in 1513, the Spaniard Vasco de Balboa crossed Panaman's shelters and went to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. He called him then Southern sea. In the fall of 1519, Fernan Magellan (Fig. 9) went on his journey for five caravels with a team of 253 sailors (Fig. 10). His goal was to find a way through the Atlantic Ocean to Molukski Islands (Spice islands). A year later, Magellan's team entered a narrow strait, which was later named Magellan Strait.. Having passed through it, the team of Magellan managed to go into an early unknown ocean. This ocean got a name Quiet.

Fig. 9. Fernan Magellan ()

Fig. 10. First World Travel of Fernan Magellan ()

In March 1521, Magellan's team reached Mariana IslandsAnd then landed in the Philippines, where Magellan himself died in a skirmish with local residents. His team managed to reach Molokksky Islands. Three years later, only one ship with 17 sailors returned home. The first world journey of Magellan proved that the earth has a spherical shape.

The development of new light Europeans took the form conquists - conquest. Together with the conquer, the resettlement begins in New World Colonists from Europe.

Great geographical discoveries changed the picture of the world. First, it was proved that the earth has a shape of a ball. A new mainland was also opened - America, as well as a new ocean - quiet. The outlines of many continents, seas and oceans were clarified. Great geographical discoveries became the first step towards creating a global market. They dismissed trading paths. So, trade cities Venice and Genoa lost their key importance in European trade. The places occupied the ocean ports: Lisbon, London, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Seville. Due to the influx of precious metals to Europe from the new light, the price revolution occurred. Prices for precious metals fell, and at the same time prices for products and raw materials have grown.

Great geographical discoveries marked the beginning of the colonial redistribution of the world and the domination of Europeans in Asia, Africa and America. Operation of slave labor and trade with colonies allowed European shopping crugs to get rich, which became one of the prerequisites for the formation of capitalism. Also, the colonization of America led to the destruction of the oldest American cultures. The great geographical discoveries became one of the reasons for the food revolution in Europe. Previously unknown cultures were delivered: corn, tomatoes, cocoa beans, potatoes and tobacco.

Bibliography

1. Fighters, MA Magellan's path: Early new time. Book for reading history. - M., 2006.
2. Vadushkin V.A., Burin S.N. Tutorial on the history of the new time, grade 7. - M., 2013.
3. Verbinen Ch., Matis G. "Conquerors of America. Columbus, Cortes. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997.
4. Lange P.V. Like the Sun ... Fernan Magellan's Life and the first circumnavigation. - M.: Progress, 1988.
; Artist
5. What discovery is Fernan Magellan, and what kind of mainland did Christopher Columbus opened?
6. Do you know any other famous seafarers and territories, they open?

The era of great geographical discoveries is the most important stage in the history of mankind. This is the time when the outlines of the continents, the seas and oceans are becoming more accurate, the technical devices are improved, and the leading countries of that time send navigators to search for new rich lands. In this lesson, you will learn about the maritime expeditions of Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus and Fernana Magellan, as well as about the opening of new lands.

Prehistory

Among the causes of great geographical discoveries can be called:

Economic

After the era of crusades, the Europeans have developed durable trade relations with the East. In the east, Europeans bought spices, fabrics, jewels. In the XV century Land caravan paths for which Europeans traded with the eastern countries were captured by the Turks. The task of finding the sea route to India appeared.

Technological

Compass and astrolabia were improved (instrument for measuring latitude and longitude).

New types of shipping, Karak and Galeon appeared. They differed apartments and powerful sailing equipment.

Navigation cards were invented - Portulans.

Now Europeans could make not only traditional coastal swimming (that is, predominantly along the shores), but also go far to the open sea.

Events

1445 - The expedition organized by Heinrich Marithelter reached green cape (Western African Point). Madeira Island, Canary Islands, part of the Azores are open.

1453 - Constantinople captured by the Turks.

1471 - Portuguese first reached the equator.

1488 - Expedition Bartolomeu Diash reached the southernmost point of Africa - Cape of Good Hope.

1492 - Christopher Columbus opened the Islands of San Salvador, Haiti, Cuba in the Caribbean.

1497-1499. - Vasco da Gama reached the Indian port of Calicut, having encouraged Africa. For the first time, a way to east through the Indian Ocean was opened.

1519 - Fernan Magellan goes to the expedition, in which the Pacific Ocean opens. And in 1521 reaches the Mariana and Philippine Islands.

Participants

Fig. 2. Astrolabia ()

Fig. 3. Karavella ()

Successes were achieved in cartography. European cartographers began to make maps with more accurate outlines of the coast of Europe, Asia and North America. Portuguese invented navigation cards. On them, in addition to the outlines of the shores, the settlements were depicted on the way of obstacles, as well as the locations of the ports. These navigation maps were called portulans.

The discoverers were becoming spaniards and Portuguese. The idea of \u200b\u200bconquering Africa was born in Portugal. However, Knight's cavalry was helpless in the sands. Portuguese prince Heinrich Navigator (Fig. 4) I decided to try the sea route along the western coast of Africa. The expeditions organized by them opened the island of Madeira, part of the Azores, Canary Islands. In 1445, the Portuguese reached the Western point of Africa - Green Cape. Several later, the coast of the Guinean Gulf was opened. There was a large amount of gold, ivory. Hence it turned out and the name is the Golden Beach, the coast of ivory. At the same time, African slaves were discovered, which traded local leaders. Portugal became the first European country, which began to sell a living product.

Fig. 4. Heinrich Navigator ()

Already after the death of Heinrich Marigolvator, Portuguese in 1471 reached the equator. In 1488, expedition Bartolome Diash reached the southern end of Africa - Cape of good hope. Cutting into Africa, this expedition reached the Indian Ocean. However, due to the sailor renom, Bartolome Diash was forced to return back. His way continued Vasco da Gama (Fig. 5)which B. 1497-1499. He came down in Africa and after 8-month swimming arrived in the Indian port of Calicate (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5. Vasco da Gama ()

Fig. 6. Opening of the sea route to India, route Vasco da Gama ()

Simultaneously with Portugal, finding a new sea route to India Spainin which at this time rules Isabella Castilskaya and Ferdinand Aragon. Christopher Columbus (Fig. 7) offered a new plan - reach India, moving to the West, through the Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus shared the view that the Earth had a spherical shape. On August 3, 1492, Columbus on three Karavellah "Santa Maria", "Ninya" and "Pinta" went from Spain to search for India (Fig. 8). On October 12, 1492, the Karavel "Pint" came a shot. It was a signal: sailors reached the island that they called San Salvadorthat translated means "Holy Savior". Research, they went to the south and opened two more islands: Haiti (then Espanyol) and Cuba Island.

Fig. 7. Christopher Columbus ()

Fig. 8. Route Christopher Columbus ()

The first expedition of Columbus lasted 225 days and opened Caribbean Sea. During the next three expeditions, Columbus opened the coast of Central America and the Northern Coast of South America. However, the Spanish crown did not suit the amount of gold that came to the country. Soon from Columbus turned away. He died in 1506 in poverty, confident that he opened a new sea route to India. Mainland, open Columbus, originally called West India (Western India). Only later, the mainland gave a name America.

Rivalry of Spain and Portugal led to the first partition in the history of the world. IN 1494 year was concluded Tordesillas AgreementAccording to which, in the Atlantic Ocean, a conventional meridian was carried out somewhat west of the Azores. All newly open lands and the sea to the West had to belong to Spain, and to the East - Portugal. but the world's first world tour of Fernan Magellan Adjusted this document.

Back in 1513, the Spaniard Vasco de Balboa crossed Panaman's shelters and went to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. He called him then the southern sea. In the fall of 1519, Fernan Magellan (Fig. 9) went on his journey for five caravels with a team of 253 sailors (Fig. 10). His goal was to find a way through the Atlantic Ocean to Molukski Islands (Spice islands). A year later, Magellan's team entered a narrow strait, which was later named Magellan Strait.. Having passed through it, the team of Magellan managed to go into an early unknown ocean. This ocean got a name Quiet.

Fig. 9. Fernan Magellan ()

Fig. 10. First World Travel of Fernan Magellan ()

In March 1521, Magellan's team reached Mariana Islands, and then landed in the Philippines, where Magellan himself died in a skirmish with the locals. His team managed to reach Molokksky Islands. Three years later, only one ship with 17 sailors returned home. The first world journey of Magellan proved that the earth has a spherical shape.

The development of new light Europeans took the form conquists - conquest. Together with the conquer, the relocation begins to the new light of the colonists from Europe.

Great geographical discoveries changed the picture of the world. First, it was proved that the earth has a shape of a ball. A new mainland was also opened - America, as well as a new ocean - quiet. The outlines of many continents, seas and oceans were clarified. Great geographical discoveries became the first step towards creating a global market. They dismissed trading paths. So, shopping cities Venice and Genoa lost their key importance in European trade. The places occupied the ocean ports: Lisbon, London, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Seville. Due to the influx of precious metals to Europe from the new light, the price revolution occurred. Prices for precious metals fell, and at the same time prices for products and raw materials have grown.

Great geographical discoveries marked the beginning of the colonial redistribution of the world and the domination of Europeans in Asia, Africa and America. Operation of slave labor and trade with colonies allowed European shopping crugs to get rich, which became one of the prerequisites for the formation of capitalism. Also, the colonization of America led to the destruction of the oldest American cultures. The great geographical discoveries became one of the reasons for the food revolution in Europe. Previously unknown cultures were delivered: corn, tomatoes, cocoa beans, potatoes and tobacco.

Bibliography

1. Fighters, MA Magellan's path: Early new time. Book for reading history. - M., 2006.
2. Vadushkin V.A., Burin S.N. Tutorial on the history of the new time, grade 7. - M., 2013.
3. Verbinen Ch., Matis G. "Conquerors of America. Columbus, Cortes. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997.
4. Lange P.V. Like the Sun ... Fernan Magellan's life and the first world swimming. - M.: Progress, 1988.
; Artist
5. What discovery is Fernan Magellan, and what kind of mainland did Christopher Columbus opened?
6. Do you know any other famous seafarers and territories, they open?

The era of the great geographical discoveries is the period of history of mankind from the end of XV to the middle of the 19th centuries.
Conditionally divided into two parts:
spanish Portuguese Opening The end of the twentieth century and the entire XVI century, the list of which includes the opening of America, the opening of the sea route to India, Pacific expeditions, the first round-the-world swimming
english-Dutch-Russian discoveries The end of the XVI century to the middle of the XVII century, which includes English and French discoveries in North America, Dutch expeditions to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, Russian discoveries of all of North Asia

The geographical discovery is called a visit to the representative of any civilized people, a new, previously unknown cultural humanity, part of the Earth or the establishment of a spatial connection between the known already parts of the sushi

Why did the era of great geographical discoveries come?

• The growth of European cities in the XV century
• Active development of trade
• Active development of crafts
• The depletion of European mines of noble metals - gold and silver
• Opening a typography that led to the spread of new technical sciences and antiquity knowledge
• Spreading and improving firearms
• Opening in navigation, the appearance of a compass and astrolabia
• Successes of cartography
• Conquering Turkgers-Osmans of Constantinople, which interrupted economic and trade relations Southern Europe with India and China

Geographical knowledge before the beginning of the era of great geographical discoveries

In the Middle Ages, Iceland and the shores of North America were opened in the medieval european travelers Marco Polo, Rubrukom, Andre from Lionjo, Veniamin Tudelsky, Afanasius Nikitin, Carpini and other landlines with countries of far asia and the Middle East, the Arabs studied southern and eastern shores Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Western Berg Indian Ocean, identified roads connecting Eastern Europe through Central Asia, Caucasus, Iranian Highlands - with India

The beginning of the era of great geographical discoveries

The beginning of the era of the great geographic discoveries can be considered the activities of Portuguese seafarers of the XV century and the inspirational of their accomplishments of Prince Heinrich Mariable (4.03.1394 - 13.11.1460)

At the beginning of the XV century, the geographical science of Christians was in a deplorable state. Knowledge of great scientists are lost. Impressions from traveling Single: Marco Polo, Carpini, Ruburg - did not become the public domain and contained many exaggerations. Geographers and cartographers in the manufacture of atlases and cards used rumors; The discoveries produced by chance were forgotten; found in the ocean of land, lost again. The same applied to the art of navigation. Skippers did not have cards, devices, knowledge of navigation, they were panically afraid open sea, fed to the shores.

In 1415, Prince Heinrich became the Grand Master of the Portuguese Order of Christ - a powerful and rich organization. On her funds on the cage of Cape Sagresh Herrich built a citadel, from where it was organized to the end of his days the sea expeditions to the West and South, created a navigator school, attracted the best mathematicians, astronomers from Arabs and Jews, collected information where and from where he could only have about distant countries and swimming , seas, winds and trends, bays, reefs, peoples and shores, began to build more perfect and large ships. The captains went on them into the sea, not only inspired in search of new lands, but also well-trained theoretically.

Portuguese opening of the XV century

• madeira Island
• Azores
• all Western Berg Africa
• river River Congo
• Cape Verde
• Cape of Good Hope

Cape of Good Hope, extreme southern Point Africa was opened by the Bartalieu Diash expedition in January 1488

Great geographical discoveries. Briefly

• 1492 —
• 1498 - Opening of Vasco and Gama Sea Route to India around Africa
• 1499-1502 - Spanish discoveries in a new light
• 1497 - Opening John Newfownland Cabot and Labrador Peninsula
• 1500 - Opening of the mouth of Amazon Vicente Pinson
• 1519-1522 - First World Swimming Magellan, Opening of Magellanov Strait, Mariana, Filipino, Molucca Islands
• 1513 - Opening of the Pacific Ocean Vasco Nunese de Balboa
• 1513 - Opening of Florida and Current Golf Stream
• 1519-1553 - discoveries and conquests in South America Cortes, Pizarro, Almagro, Orelian
• 1528-1543 - Spanish discoveries of internal regions of North America
• 1596 - Opening by Villem Barents Svalbard Island
• 1526-1598 - Spanish discoveries of Solomon, Carolinsky, Marquis, Marshal Islands, Islands New Guinea
• 1577-1580 - The second round-the-world swimming of the Englishman F. Drake, opening of the Drake Strait
• 1582 - Hike to Siberia Ermak
• 1576-1585 - Searches for the British of the North-West Passage to India and discoveries in North Atlantic
• 1586-1629 - Russian hiking in Siberia
• 1633-1649 - Opening by Russian landlords of East Eastosibirsk rivers to Kolyma
• 1638-1648 - Opening by Russian landlords of Transbaikalia and Lake Baikal
• 1639-1640 - Study by Ivan Moskvo Coast of the Okhotsk Sea
• The last quarter of XVI is the first third of the XVII century - the development of the British and the French eastern coast North America
• 1603-1638 - Research by the French of the internal regions of Canada, the opening of the Great Lakes
• 1606 - independently of each other Opening by Spaniard Kiros Dutchman Yantson North Shore Australia
• 1612-1632 - the opening of the northeast coast of North America
• 1616 - Opening of Schautn and Le Meja Cape Mountain
• 1642 - Opening of Tasmann Island Tasmann
• 1643 - Opening of Tasman New Zealand
• 1648 - Opening of the Dezhnev Strait between America and Asia (Bering Strait)
• 1648 - Opening Fedor Popov Kamchatka

Ships of the Epoch of the Great Geographical Discoveries

In the Middle Ages, the boards of ships were trimmed by boards Vnakroy - the top row of the boards overlap the bottom. This durable covering. But the ships from this are heavy, and the edges of the belts of the sheath create an excess of the resistance of the case. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the French shipbuilder Julien suggested Sewing Ships Job. The boards were sticking to the sparkms with copper stainless rivets. The jokes were sinked. This trim received the name "Kazhel", and the ships began to be called caravel. Karavellas - the main ships of the Age of the Great Geographical Discovers were built on all shipyards of the world for two hundred years after the death of their designer.

At the beginning of the XVII century, flute was invented in Holland. "Fliut" in Dutch means "ripping, flowing". These ships could not overlook any biggest shaft. They, as if plugs, took off on the wave. The tops of the flute bent fucked inside, the masts were very high: one and a half times exceeded the length of the housing, rei - short, sails from the narrow, comfortable in service, which made it possible to reduce the number of sailors in the crew. And, most importantly, the flutes were four times longer than in width, which made them very high-speed. In flutes, also installed on board, the masts were made of several elements. Flutes were much more accommodated caravel. From 1600 to 1660, the oceans of 15,000 flutes, which crowded caravels were built and frozen

Seafarers of the era of great geographical discoveries

• Alvise Kadamosto (Portugal, Venice, 1432-1488) - Green Cape Islands
• Diego Kan (Portugal, 1440 - 1486) - West Coast Africa
• Bartalieu Diash (Portugal, 1450-1500) - Cape of Good Hope
• Vasco da Gama (Portugal, 1460-1524) - Path to India around Africa
• Pedro Cabral (Portugal, 1467-1526) - Brazil
• Christopher Columbus (Genoa, Spain, 1451-1506) - America
• Nunies de Balboa (Spain, 1475-1519) - Pacific Ocean
• Francisco de Oreliana (Spain, 1511-1546) - Amazon River
• Fernando Magellan (Portugal, Spain (1480-1521) - First World Swimming
• John Cabot (Genoa, England, 1450-1498) - Labrador, Newfownland
• Jean Cartier (France, 1491-1557) east Coast Canada
• Martin Frobisher (England, 1535-1594) - Canada Polar Sea
• Alvaro Mendanya (Spain, 1541-1595) - Solomon Islands
• Pedro de Kyros (Spain, 1565-1614) - Tuamot Archipelago, new hybrids
• Louis de Torres (Spain, 1560-1614) - New Guinea Island, Strait, separating this island from Australia
• Francis Drake (England, 1540-1596) - Second World Swimming
• Villem Barents (Netherlands, 1550-1597) - the first polar navigator
• Henry Hudson (England, 1550-1611) - Researcher of the North Atlantic
• Villem Schauten (Holland, 1567-1625) - Cape Horn
• Abel Tasman (Holland, 1603-1659) - Island of Tasmania, New Zealand
• Willem Yanszon (Holland, 1570-1632) - Australia
• Semen Dejnev (Russia, 1605-1673) - Kolyma River, the shed between Asia and America

During travel, expeditions sometimes reveal new, unknown earlier geographical objects - Mountain ridges, tops, rivers, glaciers, islands, bays, straits, sea currents, deep depressions or hill at the seabed and so on. This is geographical discoveries.

In ancient times and the Middle Ages, geographical discoveries are usually made by the peoples of the most economically developed countries. These countries treated Ancient Egypt, Phenicia, later - Portugal, Spain, Holland, England, France. In the XVII-XIX centuries. Many of the largest geographical discoveries were committed by Russian landfalls in Siberia and in the Far East, navigators in the Pacific Ocean, in the Arctic and Antarctic.

An particularly important discovery was made in the XV-XVIII century, when a new social formation was replaced by feudalism - capitalism. At this time, America was discovered, the sea route around Africa to India and Indochina, Australia, a strait, separating Asia and North. America (Bering), a variety of islands in the Pacific Ocean, North Coast of Siberia, Sea currents in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It was the era of great geographical discoveries.

Geographical discoveries Always performed under the influence of economic factors, in pursuit of unknown lands, for new markets. In these centuries, powerful marine capitalist powers have developed, which enriched by capturing the lands opened, enslavement and robbery of the local population. The era of great geographical discoveries in an economic sense is called the era of the initial capital accumulation.

The actual course of geographical discoveries in its main stages developed in the following sequence.

In the old world (Europe, Africa, Asia), many discoveries were made in the ancient times by the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, Greeks (for example, during the military campaigns of Alexander Macedonsky in Central Asia and India). On the basis of accumulated information, the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy in II century. amounted to a map of the world that covered the whole old worldTrue, far from accurate.

Significant contribution to the geographical discoveries on the Eastern Coast of Africa and in South and Central Asia Made Arab travelers and merchants VIII-XIV centuries.

In search of sea routes to India in the XV century. Portuguese navigators bypassed Africa from the south by opening all the Western and south coast Mainland.

Having saved in search of a way to India across the Atlantic Ocean, the Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus in 1492 reached Bahamas, large and small Antille Islands, putting the beginning of the openings of Spanish conquerors.

In 1519-1522 The Spanish Expedition of Fernan Magellan and El Kano first walked around the Earth from the east to the West, opened the Pacific Ocean for Europeans ( local residents Indo-China and South America he was known from ancient times).

The great discoveries in the Arctic were committed by Russian and foreign destroyers in the XV-XVII centuries. The British from 1576 to 1631 were investigated by the coast of Greenland, they opened the ground to Buffhin. Russian navigasy in the XVI century. Already produced the marine beast in the new land, at the beginning of the XVII century. passed along northern coast Siberia, opened the Peninsula Yamal, Taimyr, Chukotka. S. Dezhnev in 1648 passed the Strait of Bering from the Arctic Ocean in a quiet.

In the southern hemisphere in the XVII century. Dutch A. Tasman was opened by Tasmania Island, and in the XVIII century. An Englishman J. Cook - New Zealand and the east coast of Australia. Cook's travels laid the foundations of knowledge about the distribution of water and sushi on the ground, completing the opening of the Pacific Ocean.

In the XVIII century and early XIX century. Expeditions have already been organized with special scientific purposes.

By the beginning of the XIX century. Only the Arctic and Antarctic remained uneasy. The largest of the expeditions in the XVIII century. It was equipped with the Russian government. This is the first (1725-1728) and the second (1733-1743) Kamchatka expeditions when the northern tip of Asia was opened - Cape Chelyuskin and many other objects in the north. In this expedition, V. Bering and A. I. Chirikov opened North-West America and the Aleuta Islands. Many islands in the Pacific found around the world expeditions of Russians, ranging from swimming in 1803-1807. I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lysyansky. The last mainland - Antarctica in 1820 is open by F. F. Bellinshausen and M. P. Lazarev.

In the XIX century "White spots" disappeared from the inner parts of the mainland, especially Asia. Expeditions P. P. Semenova-Tyan-Shansky and especially J. M. Przhevalsky for the first time investigated in detail almost not known to the extensive regions of Central Asia and Northern Tibet.

In Africa, D. Livingston and R. Stanley traveled.

The Arctic and Antarctic remained unexplored. At the end of the XIX century. New islands and archipelagos were opened in the Arctic, and in Antarctica - separate sections of the coast. American R. Piri in 1909 reached North Pole, and Norwegez R. Amundsen in 1911 - South. In the XX century The most significant territorial discoveries are made in Antarctica and created maps of the ongoing and treated relief.

Studying Antarctica with airplanes in 1928-1930. He held an American J. Wilkins, then British L. Elsuort. In 1928-1930 And in the following years, the American expedition under the leadership of R. Berd worked in Antarctica.

Large Soviet integrated expeditions began to study Antarctica in connection with the holding in 1957-1959. International Geophysical Year. At the same time, special Soviet were established. scientific station - "Mirny", the first intra-engine station at an altitude of 2700 m - "Pioneer", then "East", "Komsomolskaya" and others.

The scale of the work of expeditions was all expanded. The structure and character of ice cover, the temperature regime, structure and composition of the atmosphere, the movement of the air masses were studied. But the largest discoveries of Soviet scientists did during examination coastline Mainland. The map appeared bizarre outlines over 200 earlier unknown Islands, bays, capes and mountain ranges.

Nowadays, significant territorial discoveries are impossible on land. The search goes in the oceans. In recent years, the research has been carried out so intensively, and even with the use of the latest technology, which is already open and applied to maps, which are published as the atlas of the World Ocean and individual oceans.

Now at the bottom of the oceans there are few "white spots", huge deep-water plains and gutters are open, extensive mountain systems.

Does all this mean that geographical discoveries are impossible in our time, what is already "all open"? There is no way. And they are still possible in many areas, especially the World Ocean, in the Porcelain Areas, in highlands. But in our time the most sense of the concept of "geographical discovery" has changed in many ways. Geographic Science now sets the task of identifying relationships in nature and the economy, the establishment of geographical laws and patterns (see geography).

By the 15th century in Europe there were prerequisites for navigaters to explore marine spaces. Appeared - vessels designed specifically for the movement of European navigators. Appliances are growing rapidly: the compass and marine maps. It made it possible to open and explore new lands.

In 1492-1494 Christopher Columbus Bahamas, big and small Antille Islands. By 1494, he got to America. At about the same time - in 1499-1501. - Amerigo Vespucci fell to the shores of Brazil. Another famous - Vasco da Gama - opens at the turn of 15-16V.V. continuous sea path from Western Europe to India. This contributed to the development of trade, which is 15-16 V.V. He played a paramount role in the life of every state. X. Ponce de Leon, F. Cordova, X. Grikhalva discovered the Bay of La Plata, Peninsula Florida and Yucatan.

The most important event

The most important event at the beginning of the 16th century was Fernan Magellan with his team. Thus, it was possible to confirm the view that it has a spherical shape. Later in honor of Magellan called the strait through which his path was held. In the 16th century, Spanish were almost fully open and investigated South and North America. Later, at the end of the same century, Francis Drake.

Russian navigators have not begun behind the European. In 16-17 V.V. rapidly developing Siberia and Far East. The names of the discovers of I.Moskvitin and E.Habarova are known. The pools of Lena and Yenisei rivers are open. The F.Popova's expedition and S.Dezhnev accomplished swimming from the Northern Icet to the Pacific Ocean. Thus, it was possible to prove that Asia and America are not connected anywhere.

In the course of great geographical discoveries, many new lands appeared. However, the "white" stains still remained for a long time. For example, Australian lands studied much later. The geographical discoveries made in the 15-17th centuries made it possible to develop other sciences, such as Botanic. Europeans got the opportunity to get acquainted with new cultures - tomatoes, potatoes, which later became used everywhere. It can be said that the great geographical discoveries marked the beginning of capitalist relations, since thanks to them trade came to the global level.

Creation of geographic maps is engaged in cardation. This is one of the partitions of the cartography, which most likely appeared before the invention of writing. The first cards were depicted on the stones, the crust of trees and even the sand. They are preserved as shark drawings. For example, a good copy can be seen in the Italian valley of the Camiac Valley, it refers to the bronze century.

Geographic Maps - This is the earth's surface, it contains the coordinate grid with symbols that are united for all countries. Of course, the image is greatly reduced. All maps are divided into different kinds: on the scale, by territorial coverage, appointment and software. The first category has three types: they can be large-scale, medium-scale and small-scale.

The first drawing and original ratio can be from 1:10,000 to 1: 200,000. They are used most often, because They are more complete. Medium-scale cards are most often used by sets, for example, in the form. Their scale from 1: 200,000 to 1: 1,000,000 inclusive. The information on them is not so complete, so they use them less often. Well, the last variant of geographic maps has a scale of more than 1: 1,000,000. Only basic objects are applied on them. And even big cities They may not have and look like a tiny point. Most often, small-scale cards are used to indicate the spread of various languages, cultures, religions and other things. One of the most vivid examples are maps familiar to almost all people.

By territorial scale, geographical maps are divided into world maps, countries and regions. They can be much more destination. For example, geographical maps can be educational, navigation, tourist, scientific and reference and others.

Geographical maps are one of the most convenient ways to keep the information you need. It is difficult to overestimate their role in, and for each person in particular. Cartography is one of the most ancient sciences, which will always be relevant.

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The twentieth century brought humanity a lot of useful discoveries, including the concept of "quantum" and an atom model that allowed physics, energy, electronics to step far ahead. And although there are hundreds of scientists whose work can be mentioned, society allocates 5 of the most important results of their works.

3 Important discoveries from physics and chemistry

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the general one, which is now widely known in society and is studied in educational institutions. Now the theory of relativity seems like a natural truth that should not be in doubt, but at the time of its development it was completely incomprehensible even to many scientific discovery. The result of the painstaking work Einstein turned the views on and many other moments and phenomena. It is the theory of relativity that made it possible to predict many effects that first seemed contradictory sense, including the effect of time slowing down. Finally, thanks to it, it was possible to determine the orbit of some planets, including Mercury.

In the 20s The twentieth century Rutherford suggested that in addition to protons and electrons there are also. Former, scientists believed that there are only positively charged particles in the nucleus of the atom, but he refuted such a point of view. However, it was not immediately recognized: it took several years and many experiments conducted by the bot, Becker, Jolyo-Curie and Chadvik to determine that in the nucleus of the atom really there are uncharged particles, the mass of which a little exceeds the mass of the proton. This discovery led to the development of nuclear power and rapid progress in science, but it, alas, contributed to the creation of atomic bombs.

In the middle of the twentieth century, not too famous among nonspecialists was made, but still a wonderful discovery. His chemist Voldemar Tsigler. It is metal catalysts that allowed much to simplify and reduce most of the synthesis options. They are now used in very many chemical plants and are an integral part of production.

2 discoveries in the field of biology and genetics

In the 70s. The twentieth century was made by an amazing discovery: doctors managed to remove an egg from the body of a woman, without causing harm to that neither the other, then create ideal conditions in the test tube, fertilize it and return it back. Thousands of happy women who managed to conceive the kid in this way, can thank for this discovery of Bob Edwards and Patrick Stapane.

Finally, at the very end of the century, another amazing discovery was made: scientists realized that it was possible to "clean" the egg cell and put the core of the cells of an adult creature into it, and then return it to the uterus. That is how the first clone of sheep was created - sheep dolly. Cloned sheep not only survived, but also managed to live 6 years after his birth.

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In order to uniquely determine the location points In space, were invented geographical coordinates. Thanks to this system, you can always find any point on the globe on the map or on the ground.

You will need

• - card or globe;
• - electronic map.;
• - Satellite navigator.

Instruction

To find latitude, use horizontal lines, drawn - parallels. Determine what parallel is your point, and find it in degrees. Around each horizontal parallel is in degrees (left and right). If the point is located right on it, boldly conclude that its latitude is equal to this value.

If the selected place lies between the two parallels indicated on the map, determine the breadth of the nearest parallel to it and add the length of the arc in degrees to it points. Count the length of the arc with the help of the transport or about the eye. For example, if the point is in the middle between parallels 30º and 35º, then its latitude will be 32.5º. Put the designation n if the point is located above the equator (latitude) and the designation S, if it is at the equator (latitude).

Meridians will help you to determine the longitude - vertical lines on the map. Find the closest on the map to your point and see it coordinatesspecified on top and bottom (in degrees). Measure with the help of the transport or count the length of the arc between this meridian and the selected place. Add the value received to the found value and get the longitude of the desired points.

Computer with Internet access or electronic card will also help determine coordinates Places. To do this, open the map, for example, http://maps.rambler.ru/, then enter the name of the place in the upper window or specify it on the map using the cursor (it is located in the center of the screen). Look, in the lower left corner are accurate coordinates points.